!li,:, 


I 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 


o 


PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 


BY 


ROBERT  E.   MANSFIELD 


NEW  YORK 
THE  NEALE  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

1913 


Copyright,  1913,  by 
The  Neale  Publishing  Company 


^ 


Af3/7p 


TO 

MY  WIFE 


1523184 


PREFACE 

In  the  following  presentation  of  Progressive 
Chile,  no  effort  has  been  made  to  elaborate,  to  give 
undue  coloring  to  the  picture,  or  to  magnify  its  de- 
fects. It  is  a  record  of  impressions  gained  from 
personal  observations,  of  the  life  and  customs  of 
the  people  in  one  of  the  most  enlightened,  progres- 
sive and  interesting  countries  in  South  America. 

To  attempt  to  conceal  from  view,  to  obscure  the 
unsightly  spots  and  blemishes  that  mar  the  social 
structure  and  disfigure  the  body  politic,  or  to  un- 
necessarily expose  the  moral  and  social  defects 
and  infirmities  of  a  people  who  possess  so  many 
admirable  qualities,  commendable  characteristics 
and  desirable  accomplishments,  would  be  unjust, 
unfair. 

The  truth  is  not  always  pleasant  reading,  and  it 
may  seem  unkind  to  withhold  the  cup  that  patri- 
otic pride  demands.  But  let  those  who  know  the 
real  life  of  Chile  pass  judgment,  and  if  from  long 
association  they  have  not  become  so  accustomed 
and  inured  to  national,  social  and  political  defi- 
ciencies as  to  regard  them  as  established  and  cor- 
rect principles,  they  will  agree  with  one  who  re- 
gards the  situation  from  an  unprejudiced  view- 
point. 

E.  E.  M. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Geogeaphical 11 

Brief  History 25 

Indians 73 

Classified  Husbandmen 93 

Habits  and  Customs 147 

Religion 154 

Superstitions 167 

Marriages 172 

Births  and  Deaths 179 

Schools   and   Colleges 184 

Language 189 

Courts  and  Legal  Procedure 191 

Crime 201 

Railways 211 

Industrial  Interests 221 

Population  and  Colonization 231 

Villages  and  Cities 235 

The  National  Hymn 250 


PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 


GEOGRAPHICAL 

THE  Republic  of  Cliile,  beginning  at  latitude 
seventeen  degrees,  and  extending  to  the  far- 
thest southern  limits  of  South  America,  forms  a 
narrow  longitudinal  strip  of  territory  twenty-four 
hundred  miles  long,  and  not  exceeding  two  hundred 
miles  in  width  in  the  extreme.  It  has  an  area  of 
462,000  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  3,500,- 
000. 

Nature  has  been  prodigal  in  the  bestowal  of  her 
varied  gifts  upon  Chile.  Its  geographical  forma- 
tion represents  a  huge  serpent  with  its  sinewy  form 
stretched  along  the  west  coast  of  the  continent,  its 
head  resting  in  the  arid  desert  of  Ataeama,  and  its 
tail  coiled  about  the  wood-crowned  hills  and  ice- 
bound islands  of  Tierra  del  Fuego.  Upon  one  side 
loom  the  Andes  Mountains,  their  snow-capped 
heads  in  the  clouds  and  their  feet  in  the  ocean; 
upon  the  other  stretches  the  vast  expanse  of  the 
Pacific.  Bordered  as  it  is  by  the  ocean  on  one  side, 
and  including  within  its  limits  a  range  of  moun- 
tains reaching  in  some  places  an  altitude  of  24,000 
feet,  Chile  presents  a  variety  of  geological,  geo- 
graphical and  climatic  conditions  possessed  by  few 
countries   in   the  world.     Being  isolated   by   great 

natural  barriers  it  faces  away  from  all  the  centers 

11 


12  PEOGRESSIVE  CHILE 

of  population  and  ancient  homes  of  civilization,  and 
of  all  the  countries  of  South  America  it  occupies 
the  most  unfavorable  x^osition  geographically,  and 
is  the  most  inaccessible  from  Europe,  North  Amer- 
ica and  the  Far  East,  But  with  all  its  isolation, 
its  long  struggle  to  gain  a  place  among  civilized 
nations,  its  history  of  cruel  and  uncivilized  war- 
fare, Chile  possesses  natural  resources  and  attrac- 
tions which  intervening  years  have  made  known, 
and  which  in  the  short  period  of  her  national  life 
have  won  for  this  long  neglected  daughter  of  the 
Spanish  colonial  family,  a  reputation  for  wealth 
and  beauty  that  has  given  to  it  a  fame  as  wide  as 
the  world. 

NAME. 

The  name  of  Chile  is  of  doubtful  origin.  During 
the  Inca  epoch  it  was  called  Tilli,  that  being  the 
name  of  a  powerful  and  popular  Araucanian  chief. 
It  was  pronounced  "tele,"  which  translated  means 
enemy.  From  changes  in  the  pronunciation,  the 
word  w^as  finally  converted  into  Chile.  Some  au- 
thorities say  that  the  name  is  derived  from  the  In- 
dian word  "Tchile,"  or  "Techile,"  which  signifies 
cold,  having  direct  reference  to  the  snows  of  the 
Cordilleras,  or  the  glaciers  of  the  far  south. 

Divisio:Nr  OF  territoey. 

Chile  is  divided  into  four  zones, — "Mineral," 
"]\[ineral  and  Agricultural,"  "Agricultural"  and 
"Wooded  and  Fishing," 

In  the  region  of  the  "Mineral"  or  north  zone,  ex- 
tending from  the  province  of  Coquimbo  on  the 
south  to  the  extreme  north  of  the  Eepublie,  rain 


GEOGEAPHICAL  13 

is  unknown;  there  is  very  little  moisture  and 
scarcely  any  water  in  the  streams.  As  a  result  of 
the  arid  condition  of  this  territory  there  is  little 
spontaneous  or  cultivated  vegetation,  and  no  agri- 
cultural interests  worthy  of  mention.  But  the  five 
provinces  comprising  the  zone  abound  in  minerals, 
and  form  conjointly  with  the  agricultural  resources 
of  other  sections  the  productive  wealth  of  Chile. 
Among  the  products  of  this  section  are  nitrate  of 
soda  and  guano  in  quantities  sufficient  to  enrich  the 
lands  of  the  world;  there  are  also  deposits  of  gold, 
silver,  copper,  lead,  quicksilver,  zinc,  bismuth,  iron, 
manganese  and  borax. 

The  provinces  of  Tarapaca  and  Antofagasta 
comprise  the  great  nitrate  or  saltpeter  fields  of 
South  America,  the  richest  and  most  extensive  in 
the  world.  The  province  of  Tarapaca  was  ac- 
quired from  Peru,  in  the  war  with  that  country  in 
1879-81,  and  Antofagasta  was  Bolivian  territory 
previous  to  the  same  war.  Until  recent  years  this 
arid  region,  designated  as  the  pampa  or  ''desierto 
de  Atacama,"  was  considered  nonproductive  and 
practically  worthless.  Now  the  products  of  nitrate 
of  soda  alone  amount  to  over  100,000,000  Chilean  pe- 
sos annually,  and  comprise  two-thirds  of  the  export 
business  of  the  Eepublic.  This  mineral  zone  covers 
an  area  of  235,000  square  miles  and  has  a  population 
of  355,000.  The  great  mineral  wealth  of  the  coun- 
try is  not  limited  to  this  particular  section,  how- 
ever, as  gold  and  other  minerals  are  found  in  a 
majority  of  the  provinces  in  Chile,  and  mines  are 
worked  from  Tarapaca  to  Tierra  del  Fuego. 

It  is  within  the  limit  of  this  zone  that  the  once 
famous  mines  of  Chanarcillo  and  Copiapo  are  lo- 


14  PEOGRESSIVE  CHILE 

cated,  from  which  has  been  taken  millions  of  dol- 
lars worth  of  ore.  But  these  and  other  silver 
mines,  once  productive,  have  practically  ceased  to 
yield,  from  the  lack  of  application  of  modern  min- 
ing methods,  and  the  silver  mining  industry  has 
greatly  depreciated  in  Chile  in  the  last  decade. 
Gold  mining  is  also  less  extensive  than  in  former 
years,  except  in  Tierra  del  Fuego,  and  the  product 
has  greatly  decreased  in  the  northern  zone. 

AVith  the  decrease  in  gold  and  silver  mining  in 
the  Mineral  zone  has  come  increased  interest  in  the 
production  of  copper,  which  now  forms  eighty  per 
cent,  of  the  metal  exports  from  Chile. 

The  Mineral  and  Agricultural  zone  may  he  de- 
fined as  a  section  of  semi-mountainous,  sparsely 
watered  country,  extending  north  from  Santiago,  to 
the  mineral  zone.  There  are  within  the  territory 
a  number  of  small  streams  extending  from  the 
mountains  to  the  sea,  in  the  valleys  of  which  are 
small  farms,  called  "fundos."  There  are  few 
towns  of  any  consequence  in  that  part  of  the  coun- 
try, no  railways,  few  improved  roads,  and  com- 
munication between  the  coast  and  interior  is  slow 
and  difficult.  Mule  and  burro  trains  are  the  com- 
mon method  of  transportation,  while  more  rapid 
communication  is  made  on  horseback. 

The  Agricultural,  or  central  zone  is  the  garden 
of  Chile.  It  includes  twelve  provinces,  extending 
from  Aconcagua  on  the  north  to  the  river  Bio  Bio 
on  the  south,  with  an  area  of  75,000  square  miles, 
and  a  population  of  1,800,000.  About  eighty  per 
cent,  of  the  people  living  in  this  zone  are  engaged 
either  directly  or  indirectly  in  agricultural  pur- 
suits.   In  the  northern  part  of  this  geographical 


GEOGRAPHICAL  15 

division  is  Valparaiso,  the  most  important  commer- 
cial center  in  the  Republic;  in  the  center  is  Santi- 
ago,  the  beautiful  capital  city,  and  in  the   south, 
situated  on  the  Bio  Bio  is  Concepcion,  the  third  city 
in  population  and  importance  in  the  country.     In 
this  section  there  is  a  copious  rainfall  between  the 
months  of  May  and  September,  and  consequently 
a    prolific    growth    of    vegetation.     Between    the 
mountain  ranges  and  hills  that  crowd  close  down  to 
the  sea,  are  beautiful  valleys,  where  wheat,  maize, 
barley,  flax,  oats,  rye,  all  kinds  of  fruits,  vegeta- 
bles,  and  a  variety  of  grasses   grow  and  mature 
well.     From   Santiago,   extending   several  hundred 
miles  south  are  wide  fertile  valleys,  high  and  low 
table-lands,  wonderfully  productive  and  in  a  splen- 
did   state   of   cultivation.     This    central   valley   of 
Chile,  lying  between  the  Andes  and  the  coast  range, 
is  a  continuous  garden  of  luxuriant  beauty.     The 
cultivated  loveliness  of  the  private  estates,  which 
surround  the  capital,  offer  a  pleasing  contrast  to 
the  sterner  grandeur  of  mountain  forms  and  color 
with  which  it  is  enclosed.     There  are  to  be  found 
the  ideal  South  American  haciendas,  where  thou- 
sands of  acres  are  included  in  one  domain,  where 
the  primitive  system  of  cultivating  the  land,  intro- 
duced  by   the   Spaniards   when  they  came   to   the 
western  world,  with  few  exceptions,  still  prevails. 
There  is  the  one  storied  castle-like  residence  of  the 
proprietor,  with  its   wide   verandas,   roomy   corri- 
dors,   rambling   rooms    and   beautiful    patio.     The 
house  is  often  surrounded  by  a  magnificent  garden 
and   park,   where   graceful   palms,   beautiful    trees 
and   brilliant   flowers   in   great   variety   grow   and 
bloom  the  year  round.     There  too,  are' vast  herds 


16  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

of  horses,  cattle  and  otlier  domestic  animals,  all  fat 
and  sleek  from  feeding  npon  the  rich  pasturage  of 
irrigated  "potreros"  (fields).  Farther  south  in 
this  zone,  the  semi-tropical  appearance  of  the 
northern  regions  give  place  to  wood-crowned  hills 
and  streams  fringed  with  forest  trees.  Rains  are 
more  frequent  and  the  growth  of  vegetation  more 
general  and  prolific.  Vast  farms  extend  in  every 
direction.  Stolid  oxen,  drawing  primitive  plows  or 
carts,  plod  through  fallow  fields,  and  the  moun- 
tains, which  are  always  in  sight,  give  up  their  soli- 
tude in  scenes  of  domesticity  and  peaceful  indus- 
try. 

The  wooded  or  southern  zone,  includes  all  the 
territory  from  the  river  Bio  Bio,  south  to  Cape 
Horn,  and  forms  the  least  developed  portion  of 
Chile.  In  the  southern  provinces  are  vast  ^drgin 
forests,  rich  in  varied  resources,  awaiting  commer- 
cial development.  In  some  sections  of  the  country 
the  forests,  overrun  with  creepers,  are  so  dense 
that  they  form  an  almost  impenetrable  jungle, 
where  the  sunlight  never  penetrates,  and  where 
twilight  lingers  throughout  the  entire  day.  In 
these  forests  are  various  woods  of  excellent  qual- 
ity, including  oak,  cypress,  lingue  (the  bark  of 
which  makes  excellent  tanning  material),  rauli, 
redwood,  laurel,  resin  pine,  poplar,  and  quillai,  the 
bark  of  which  is  exported  in  large  quantities,  and 
is  used  as  a  mordant  for  dyeing. 

Sawmills  have  been  established  in  recent  years, 
and  are  now  in  operation  in  the  timber  districts  of 
southern  Chile,  but  the  lumber  industry,  which 
promises  to  become  one  of  the  important  commer- 
cial interests  of  the  country,  is  only  in  its  infancy. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  17 

In  fact  tlie  mills  have  so  far  made  practically  no 
impression  upon  the  forests,  their  cuttings  being 
limited  to  choice  timber  along  the  streams  and  wa- 
ter-ways where  transportation  facilities  are  good. 
In  addition  to  the  valuable  timber  interests  and 
great  agricultural  resources  of  southern  Chile,  it 
possesses  large  deposits  of  coal,  gold,  iron  ores, 
Portland  cement,  roofing  slate  and  other  minerals, 
awaiting  development.  On  the  plains  and  in  the 
valleys  luxuriant  vegetation  develops  annually  and 
remains  to  enrich  the  soil  for  the  use  of  future  gen- 
erations. Unexplored  hills  and  mountains,  hoard- 
ing a  wealth  of  minerals,  await  the  ambitious  pros- 
pector and  industrious  miner.  In  the  sands  of 
Tierra  del  Fuego  is  gold  to  gladden  the  hearts  of 
men,  and  the  forests  contain  material  for  lumber 
sufficient  to  supply  the  demands  of  the  continent. 
In  this  subdivision  there  are  also  extensive  fisher- 
ies and  oyster  beds.  Along  the  coast,  rugged  hills 
that  reach  down  to  the  sea  are  covered  with  forest 
trees,  and  on  the  Cordilleras  near  the  southern 
limits  of  the  continent,  vegetation  extends  up  to  an 
altitude  where  virgin  snows  and  verdant  green 
meet  and  mingle  in  strange  contrast.  In  the  moun- 
tain and  forest  solitudes  of  this  undeveloped  re- 
gion, are  many  lakes,  resting  like  emerald  settings 
in  the  landscape.  Viewed  from  the  sea  the  scen- 
ery along  the  coast  of  southern  Chile  presents  a 
picturesque  appearance.  The  Andes  Mountains, 
grand  and  imposing,  form  a  splendid  background 
for  the  verdant  forests  fonning  the  shore  line. 
This  range  of  mountains  constitutes  a  conspicuous 
physical  feature  of  the  continent.  To  the  south  it 
crowds  close  upon  the  Pacific,  and  throughout  the 


18  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

length  of  Chile  the  Cordilleras  cover  a  double  se- 
ries of  highly  elevated  summits  enclosing  longitu- 
dinal valleys  within  the  region  of  perpetual  snow. 
On  the  western  range  there  are  three  smaller  mid- 
land mountain  chains  called  the  ''Cordillera  Mari- 
tima,"  running  parallel  with  the  Andean,  between 
w^hich  are  numerous  well-watered  valleys  possess- 
ing a  delightfully  equable  climate.  From  any  of 
these  valleys  the  giant  peaks  of  the  Andes,  royally 
crowned  and  ermine  robed  are  plainly  visible.  And. 
as  the  day-god  rides  over  them,  touching  their 
white  crests  with  fingers  of  gold,  the  scenes  pre- 
sented are  wonderful  in  variety  and  spectacular 
effect. 

RIVEES    AND    WATERWAYS. 

The  rivers  in  Chile  all  have  their  source  in  the 
Andes  and  empty  into  the  Pacific.  Unvexed  by 
fretting  wheels  of  commerce,  they  flow  peacefully 
on  from  mountains  to  the  sea.  The  distance  being 
short  and  the  declivity  great,  the  current  of  the 
streams  is  swift,  affording  excellent  power  for 
manufacturing  purposes.  Sometimes  in  the  rainy 
season,  when  the  rivers  are  flushed  from  excessive 
rains,  or  in  summer  when  their  waters  are  aug- 
mented by  melting  snows,  they  become  raging  tor- 
rents, sweeping  everything  before  them,  frequently 
causing  much  loss  of  life  and  great  damage  to 
property.  Among  the  more  important  rivers  in 
Chile  are  the  Aconcagua,  Mapocho,  Maipo,  Cacha- 
poal,  Tingiiiririca,  Teno,  Lontue,  Mataquito,  Rapel, 
Claro,  Maule,  Nuble,  and  Bio  Bio.  Some  of  these 
rivers  are  navigable  for  light-draft  vessels  for  a 
short  distance  from  the  sea,  but  the  winding  course 


GEOGRAPHICAL  19 

of  the  streams,  irregular  depth  of  water  and  the 
swift  current  make  traffic  unsafe,  impracticable 
and  unprofitable.  The  most  peculiar  and  compli- 
cated river  system  on  the  continent  is  formed  l)y 
the  converging  of  the  numerous  streams  that  empty 
into  the  bay  of  Corral,  near  Valdivia.  In  some 
places  as  many  as  four  rivers  converge  at  one 
point.  The  scenery  along  these  rivers  presents  a 
panorama  of  constantly  changing  views.  Wooded 
hills  rise  abruptly  along  the  banks,  and  in  many 
places  trees  lean  out  over  the  streams,  in  the  crys- 
tal waters  of  which  are  reflected  their  inverted  im- 
ages. Islands,  overrun  with  creepers  and  brilliant 
with  the  scarlet  bloom  of  coiphues  and  fuchsias, 
and  the  yellow  hues  of  goldenrod,  are  some  of  the 
features  of  the  picturesque  scenery  along  this  i^e- 
culiar  river  system. 

The  fact  that  the  rivers  of  Chile  afford  prac- 
tically no  transportation  facilities  is  a  matter  of 
little  commercial  importance,  because  of  the  nar- 
row territorial  limits  of  the  country  from  east  to 
west,  the  general  course  of  all  the  streams.  As  a 
compensation  for  this  lack  of  natural  transporta- 
tion routes  to  the  interior,  the  coast  of  southern 
Chile  is  a  succession  of  bays,  sounds,  gulfs  and 
channels,  including  the  historic  Straits  of  Magel- 
lan, which  separate  Tierra  del  Fuego  from  the 
mainland,  and  Smyth's  Channel,  dangerous  to 
navigate  because  of  the  swift  currents  flowing 
through  the  narrow,  tortuous  ways.  In  many 
places  along  the  coast  the  descent  of  the  shore  is 
so  abrupt  that  heavy-draft  vessels  are  enabled  to 
pass  within  a  few  yards  of  the  embankments,  and 
directly  under   overhanging  trees.     This   southern 


20  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

arcliipelago,  with  its  hundreds  of  islands,  presents 
a  panorama  of  scenes  peculiarly  picturesque  and 
interesting.  Among  the  more  important  islands  of 
the  coast  are  Chiloe,  the  original  habitat  of  the  po- 
tato, Wellington,  Hanover,  Queen  Adelaide,  St. 
Inos,  and  Desolation,  so-called  because  of  the  lack 
of  vegetation  and  desolate  aspect  of  this  long  nar- 
row strip  of  land  lying  at  the  western  entrance  to 
the  Straits  of  Magellan.  In  some  of  the  narrow 
channels  separating  the  islands  from  the  mainland 
and  from  each  other,  the  currents  are  so  swift,  the 
waters  so  disturbed  and  the  storms  so  fierce  in  cer- 
tain seasons,  that  the  sea  seems  a  boiling,  seething 
caldron,  terrifying  to  passengers  and  mariners  on 
passing  ships.  But  those  dangerous  passages  add 
a  fascinating  feature  to  the  scenic  effects  of  the 
most  picturesque  portion  of  the  coast  country. 

The  Straits  of  Magellan  are  a  wise  and  benefi- 
cent provision  of  nature,  forming  a  great  canal  or 
natural  transportation  route  across  the  southern 
portion  of  the  continent,  connecting  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  oceans.  Ships  pass  through  the  Straits 
instead  of  around  Cape  Horn,  one  of  the  most  dan- 
gerous seas  in  the  world  to  navigate.  The  Andean 
range  of  mountains,  extending  from  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  and  stretching  its  vast,  rugged  length  across 
the  two  Americas,  ends  at  the  Straits,  Mount  Vic- 
toria, a  massive  pile  of  gleaming  ice  and  snow,  be- 
ing the  last  link  in  the  .jagged  chain.  South  of  the 
Straits  is  Tierra  del  Fuego,  ''Land  of  Fire,"  the 
hills  and  mountains  of  which,  including  the  great 
pyramidal  cone  of  Mount  Sarmiento,  perpetually 
covered  with  a  mantle  of  snow,  stretch  away  hun- 


GEOGRAPHICAL  21 

dreds  of  miles  to   Cape  Ilorn,  the  most  southern 
point  of  the  Continent. 

The  scenery  as  well  as  the  topographical  and 
geographical  conditions  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  and 
Patagonia,  in  fact  all  the  southern  archipelago,  are 
different  from  those  in  the  arctic  regions.  There 
is  more  vegetation  and  a  greater  variety  of  scenery 
than  in  the  coast  countries  of  a  corresponding  lati- 
tude north.  There  are  the  beauties  of  the  Thou- 
sand Islands,  and  Darwin,  in  describing  a  voyage 
through  the  Straits,  compared  the  glaciers  of  Ti- 
erra del  Fuego  to  a  thousand  frozen  Niagaras.  All 
the  beautiful  tints  and  combinations  of  coloring  to 
be  found  in  lakes  Como  and  Lucerne,  of  the  Medi- 
terranean and  the  bay  of  Naples,  are  equaled,  if 
not  surpassed  by,  the  hues  reflected  in  the  deep  wa- 
ters of  those  channels.  Huge  glaciers  crowding 
down  into  the  sea;  giant  rocks,  rising  like  sheer 
walls  of  masonry  for  thousands  of  feet  above  the 
water,  sometimes  ending  in  shapes  resembling 
church  pinnacles  and  cathedral  domes;  mountains, 
whose  forest-fringed  bases  are  washed  by  the  sea, 
their  snow-mantled  heads  in  the  clouds ;  islands, 
frosted  with  snow  and  bejeweled  with  ice,  in  which 
is  mingled  the  hues  of  gray-green  moss  and  verdant 
vegetation;  numerous  wdnding,  tortuous  water- 
ways, dividing  the  islands  from  each  other  and  sep- 
arating them  from  the  mainland,  are  some  of  the 
features  of  the  panoramic  view  of  coast-line, 
mountains  and  islands,  presented  in  a  landscape 
that  is  wonderfully  picturesque  and  prepossessing. 
When  storms  sweep  through  these  narrow  chan- 
nels,   driving    seas    mountain-high    against    rocky 


22  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

sliores,  increasing  the  force  of  natural  currents, 
obscuring  the  view  with  a  shroud  of  snow  and  sleet 
and  mist,  a  wikl  aspect  is  added  to  the  scene. 
Mountains  and  islands  rise  ghostlike  out  of  the 
water,  their  forms  dimly  outlined  against  the  angry 
sky;  and  the  din  of  booming  seas  and  swiftly  rush- 
ing waters  adds  terrifying  confusion  to  the  dan- 
gers of  navigation. 

In  Patagonia  the  Andes  differ  in  many  of  the 
essential  features  of  their  geographical  conforma- 
tion from  that  magnificent  mountain  system  which 
further  north  is  the  pride  and  despair  of  the  west- 
ern countries  of  South  America.  The  grand  sim- 
plicity of  structure  in  the  northern  system,  the 
magnificent  continuity  and  lofty  grandeur  of  its 
main  ranges,  the  altitude  of  its  dominating  peaks, 
its  terrible  and  forbidding  wastes  of  desolate  and 
highly  elevated  table-land  are  wanting  in  the  moun- 
tain masses  of  the  far  south.  The  topographical 
condition  of  the  Patagonian  country  rej^resents  an 
immense  system  of  ancient  lake  beds,  and  sea  inlets 
separated  and  divided  by  groups  of  mountain 
peaks,  sometimes  piled  upon  a  massive  pedestal  of 
crystalline  rock,  sometimes  strung  out  in  jagged 
lines  of  sierra  or  ridge,  fringed  with  moraines  or 
terraces,  shaped  and  reshaped  by  the  ice-agency  of 
more  than  one  glacial  period;  mountains  which 
have  been  split  again  and  again  by  stupendous  vol- 
canic action,  and  enormous  masses  of  volcanic  de- 
posits. 

TIERRA.  DEL.  FUEGO. 

Tierra  del  Fuego,  instead  of  being  a  *'  Land  of 
Desolation,"  as  it  is  generally  designated,  is  a  land 


GEOGRAPHICAL  23 

of  picturesque  scenes,  and  possesses  natural  re- 
sources to  make  it  a  country  of  prospective  wealth, 
with  a  promising  future.  The  archipelago  includes 
hundreds  of  islands,  some  of  which  are  rocky, 
mountainous,  and  barren,  but  most  of  them  are  cov- 
ered with  woods,  and  on  some  of  the  larger  islands, 
especially  that  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  are  wide 
stretches  of  valley  and  plain,  covered  with  rich 
grasses,  affording  splendid  pasturage  for  sheep, 
cattle  and  horses.  There  is  some  valuable  timber 
on  the  islands,  and  placer  gold  mining  is  carried  on 
to  some  extent  at  various  places.  The  commercial 
importance  of  the  archipelago  depends,  however, 
upon  sheep  raising,  an  industry  that  is  rapidly  de- 
veloping, and  one  that  is  proving  profitable.  There 
have  been  established  in  recent  years  a  number  of 
large  sheep  ranches,  called  "estancias,"  on  the 
island  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  and  in  Patagonia.  Mil- 
lions of  sheep  are  pastured  on  the  rich  grasses  that 
grow  luxuriantly  tliere,  and  the  annual  output  of 
wool,  mutton,  and  fat  is  an  important  commercial 
product  of  the  country. 

There  are  few  more  interesting  and  picturesque 
sights  than  those  far  southern  farm  lands  in  the 
Magellanes  territory,  the  Scotland  of  South  Amer- 
ica. Long,  sweeping,  undulating  downs  climb  up- 
ward to  the  forest-clad  hills,  or  down  to  the  edges 
of  the  blue  glacial  lakes;  and  through  the  mazes  of 
black  thorn,  the  bloom  of  which  fills  the  air  with 
fragrance  in  the  flowering  time,  wander  vast  herds 
of  sheep,  often  accompanied  by  large  flocks  of  os- 
triches, which  find  safety  in  associating  with  the 
wool  coated  animals.  Northward  across  the  hori- 
zon, the  castellated  and  unbroken  outlines  of  in- 


24  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

numerable  mountains  stretch  their  length  across 
the  landscape;  while  all  around  are  sandstone  hills, 
cliff-bored,  and  forest  covered,  and  along  the  banks 
of  turbulent  streams,  wild  flowers  bloom,  giving  a 
touch  of  brilliant  coloring  to  the  pastoral  scene. 
It  is  beautiful  in  outline,  detail  and  coloring,  and  in 
its  infinite  variety. 


BRIEF  HISTORY 

FOR  more  tlian  five  liimclred  years  previous  to 
the  discovery  of  America,  the  territory  which 
now  constitutes  the  Republic  of  Chile  was  inhabited 
by  bands  of  nomadic,  barbarous  Indians.  The  in- 
digenous races  of  Chile  possessed  none  of  the  arts 
of  civilization.  They  had  no  knowledge  of  culti- 
vating the  soil,  and  the  rich  mineral  resources  of 
the  country  remained  undisturbed  and  undeveloped 
during  all  the  centuries  in  which  they  were  left  in 
undisputed  possession.  They  had  no  system  of 
government,  no  recogiiizeci  social  or  moral  laws,  no 
commerce,  no  medium  of  exchange,  no  occupations. 
The  nearest  approach  they  had  to  houses  were  rude 
huts  "rucas,"  made  from  the  branches  of  trees, 
which  afforded  little  protection  against  rain  or 
cold ;  neither  had  they  clothing  with  which  to  cover 
their  bodies  or  protect  them  from  the  elements. 
They  were  nomadic,  cannibalistic  savages,  living- 
like  the  beasts  of  the  forests,  subsisting  upon  wild 
fruits,  berries,  nuts,  and  such  animals  as  they  could 
capture  or  kill  with  crude  weapons,  made  from 
wood  and  bamboo.  There  being  few  animals  and 
birds  indigenous  to  the  country,  the  Indians  were 
often  driven  to  the  extremity  of  eating  insects, 
mollusks,  lizards  and  reptiles,  as  a  means  of  sus- 
taining life.  The  absolute  lack  of  civilization,  the 
low  level  of  the  intellectual  standard,  depraved 
moral  condition,  vicious  habits  and  disgusting  cus- 

25 


26  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

toms  that  prevailed  among  the  indigenous  races  of 
Chile  previous  to  the  peaceful  conquest  of  portions 
of  the  territory  by  the  Incas,  finds  few  parallels  in 
the  history  of  the  world.  Might  was  right;  there 
was  no  law,  no  restraint,  no  incentive  or  encour- 
agement to  progress  or  improvement;  no  punish- 
ment iJi'ovided  for  those  who  committed  murder 
and  outrage.  When  one  person  killed  another,  he 
feasted  upon  the  flesh  of  his  vanquished  adversary, 
eating  it  raw,  the  formality  of  cooking  being  dis- 
jjensed  with. 

When  the  character  of  the  aborigines  of  Chile  is 
taken  into  consideration ;  the  conditions  out  of  which 
the  Republic  was  evolved,  a  century  ago — 1810;  the 
elements  amalgamated  into  the  present  homogene- 
ous population,  inherited  peculiarities,  traditional 
customs  and  superstitions  taken  into  account,  the 
wonder  is  that  progress  has  been  so  rapid  along  the 
road  of  national  advancement,  commercial  and  in- 
tellectual development. 

More  than  one  hundred  years  before  Columbus 
discovered  America ;  before  the  flood-tide,  which  car- 
ried in  its  current  a  curious  collection  of  ambitious 
adventurers  and  the  poor  and  oppressed  of  all  the 
European  nations,  set  in  towards  the  western  world, 
making  the  Atlantic  Ocean  the  ''Path  of  Empire;" 
before  the  advance  guard  of  Spanish  adventurers 
and  despoilers  drifted  from  the  Antilles  to  tropical 
America,  and  crossing  the  Isthmus  of  Panama 
started  in  quest  of  gold — a  mission  of  robbery  and 
butchery  of  the  defenseless  inhabitants  of  the  west 
coast  countries ;  before  Francisco  Pizarro  despoiled 
Peru  and  destroj'ed  the  Inca  Empire,  where  existed 
the  only  material  evidences  of  an  advanced  civiliza- 


BRIEF  HISTORY  27 

tion  in  Soulli  America,  created  and  maintained  by 
a  native  race ;  long  before  Diego  Ahnagro,  friend  and 
ally  of  Pizarro,  who  was  refused  a  share  of  the  spoils 
secured  in  the  conquest  of  Peru,  went  to  Chile,  the 
Incas  had  invaded  the  territory  and  made  peaceful 
conquest  of  portions  of  the  country  which  now  con- 
stitutes the  northern  part  of  the  Republic. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  Inca 
of  Peru  sent  a  small  army  to  explore  the  country  to 
the  south,  with  a  view  to  increasing  the  territorial 
limits  of  his  Empire.  The  expedition  went  as  far 
south  as  the  valley  of  the  Aconcag-ua,  a  rich,  fertile 
country,  where  later  was  established  the  city  of 
Quillota,  the  first  capital  of  Chile.  An  attempt  was 
made  to  explore  the  country  further  south,  but  the 
advance  was  resented  by  the  Araucanians,  and  the 
Incas  returned  to  Peru  to  report  the  success  of  the 
undertaking.  A  few  years  later  another  anny  was 
sent  by  the  Inca  into  Chile,  which  explored  the 
country  as  far  south  as  the  River  Bio  Bio,  which  is 
now  the  northern  boundary  of  the  Araucanian  terri- 
tory. 

The  Incas  being  much  more  advanced  in  civiliza- 
tion than  the  Indian  tribes  of  Chile,  introduced 
ideas  and  customs  that  furnished  the  foundation 
upon  which  was  later  erected  the  superstinicture-  of 
the  Republic.  They  taught  the  Indians  how  to  irri- 
gate and  to  cultivate  the  soil,  the  value  of  precious 
metals,  how  to  weave  fabrics  from  the  fur  of  the 
vicuna  and  guanaco,  and  the  art  of  manufacturing 
pottery.  They  also  introduced  maize,  beans  and 
vegetables  of  various  kinds,  in  the  cultivation  and 
uses  of  which  they  instructed  the  natives.  In  fact, 
the  first  advance  made  by  the  Chilean  Indians  from 


28  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

a  state  of  absolute  barbarism  towards  a  condition 
of  semi-civilization  was  due  to  the  teachings  and  ex- 
ample of  the  Incas,  the  most  intelligent,  progres- 
sive and  highly  civilized  of  the  numerous  indigenous 
races  in  America,  North  or  South.  "With  a  view  to 
making  Chile  a  part  of  the  Peruvian  Empire,  the 
Incas  built  a  magnificent  military  road  across  the 
desert  of  Atacama,  which  was  later  partially  de- 
stroyed by  the  Spaniards,  but  portions  of  which  still 
remain  as  evidence  of  the  genius  and  creative  skill 
of  that  wonderful  people. 

In  1535,  one  hundred  years  after  the  peaceful  con- 
quest of  Northern  Chile  by  the  Incas,  Diego  de  Al- 
magro,  one  of  the  Spanish  freebooters  and  Pacific 
pirates,  started  from  Peru  with  five  hundred  ad- 
venturous soldiers  on  an  expedition  of  conquest  of 
Chile,  hoping  to  repeat  there  Pizarro's  experience 
in  the  spoliation  of  the  Inca  Empire.  The  expedi- 
tion of  Almagro,  to  whom  history  generally  accords 
the  honor  of  the  discovery  of  Chile,  was  attended 
with  many  hardships  and  much  suffering.  After 
leaving  the  road  constructed  by  the  Incas  across  the 
desert,  they  had  to  cross  the  Cordillera  of  the  Andes, 
the  higher  ranges  of  which  were  covered  with  snow 
and  over  which  there  was  no  road  and  where  the 
cold  was  intense.  After  a  voyage  lasting  six 
months,  in  which  innumerable  difficulties  were  en- 
countered, Almagro  arrived  at  a  point  where  Copi- 
apo  is  now  situated,  with  less  than  one  half  of  his 
followers,  the  others  having  died  from  cold  and 
starvation  in  crossing  the  mountains.  It  was  on 
this  expedition  that  Almagro  manifested  character- 
istics which  later  gave  him  the  reputation  of  being 
one  of  the  most  cruel  and  inhuman  of  the  many  ad- 


BRIEF  HISTORY  29 

venturers  who  invaded  Chile.  ^Hien  animals  used 
in  transporting  provisions  and  equipment  for  the  ex- 
pedition died,  Indians  encountered  on  the  way  were 
impressed  into  service  as  beasts  of  burden.  They 
were  compelled  to  live  with  the  pack  animals,  with 
which  they  served  in  common,  and  when  unable  to 
longer  support  the  burdens  under  which  they 
struggled  across  deserts  and  over  mountains,  they 
were  brutally  murdered,  or  maimed  and  left  to  suf- 
fer the  tortures  of  a  slow  death  by  the  wayside. 

When  Almagro  reached  the  valley  of  the  Aconca- 
gua, where  he  had  been  preceded  more  than  a 
century  by  the  Incas,  who  established  friendly  re- 
lations with  the  Araucanians,  he  was  kindly  received 
by  the  Indians.  But  the  natives  who  had  been  en- 
slaved and  cruelly  treated  by  the  Spaniards  enroute, 
related  their  experiences  to  the  friendly  Indians, 
who  became  suspicious  and  fled  into  the  forests  for 
protection.  This  angered  Almagro  who  ordered  his 
soldiers  to  go  in  search  of  them  and  to  kill  all  who 
refused  to  return  to  their  places  of  habitation.  The 
Spaniards  who  were  provided  with  horses  and  arms 
pursued  the  defenseless  natives  and  slaughtered 
hundreds  of  them. 

Having  gone  to  Chile  in  search  of  gold,  with  no 
other  motive  than  to  sack  and  rob,  and  finding  only 
poor,  ignorant,  miserable  Indians  in  possession  of 
the  country,  Almagro  soon  returned  to  Peru,  dis- 
appointed and  disgusted  with  what  he  described  as 
the  poverty  of  the  territory  he  had  explored.  Be- 
cause of  this  disappointment,  previous  to  his  depar- 
ture, he  committed  outrages  and  atrocities  upon 
the  helpless  natives,  by  whom  he  had  been  received 
as  a  friend,  which  have  few  parallels  in  the  record 


30  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

of  cruel  deeds,  with  whicli  the  early  history  of  South. 
America  is  so  rejilete.  The  acts  of  treachery  and 
outrage  committed  by  Almagro  and  his  followers 
created  a  feeling  in  the  minds  of  the  Araucanians 
that  ultimately  led  to  hostilities  which  lasted  for 
over  three  hundred  years ;  hostile  feelings  that  have 
never  been  removed,  and  prejudices  that  will  remain 
so  long  as  a  representative  of  that  brave,  obstinate 
race  survives. 

Almagro 's  unfavorable  report  and  the  miserable 
appearance  of  his  soldiers  on  their  return  to  Peru, 
together  with  the  stories  of  sutfering,  created  in 
the  minds  of  the  Spaniards  the  impression  that 
Chile  was  the  poorest  of  all  the  South  American 
countries.  But  in  1540,  Pedro  de  Valdivia,  a  young 
Spanish  captain,  apparently  more  ambitious  for 
fame  than  riches,  organized  an  expedition  for  the 
i:)urpose  of  exploring  Chile  and  taking  possession  of 
the  territory  in  the  name  of  the  King.  Writing  to 
his  sovereign  concerning  the  undertaking  he  said: 
*'I  have  no  desire  but  to  discover  and  add  territory 
to  your  Majesty's  Kingdom,  and  fame  to  my  mem- 
ory." With  one  hundred  and  fifty  men  the  intrepid 
young  officer,  who  had  gained  distinction  for  valor 
in  European  wars,  started  on  a  journey  from  Peru 
over  deserts  and  mountains  to  Chile,  where  he  was 
to  lay  the  foundations  for  a  future  Republic.  On 
reaching  the  beautiful  valley  of  the  Mapocho,  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall  of  mountains,  and  from  the  cen- 
ter of  which  rises  the  Santa  Lucia,  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  natural  formations  in  the  world,  Val- 
divia laid  out  and  established  the  first  city  in  Chile, 
which  is  now  the  splendid  capital  of  the  Republic, 
Santiago,  on  February  12,  1541. 


BRIEF  HISTORY  31 

On  the  arrival  of  Valdivia  and  his  soldiers,  the 
Indians  remembering  the  deception  and  cruelty 
practiced  by  Almagro,  abandoned  the  country  near 
where  the  Si)aniards  located.  But  on  being  in- 
formed by  Valdivia  that  he  desired  to  live  on  terms 
of  peace  with  them,  they  returned  to  their  "rucas" 
and  resumed  the  cultivation  of  their  "sitios." 

The  beautiful  city  of  Santiago  of  to-day,  with  its 
palatial  residences,  magnificent  Alameda,  grand 
cathedral,  splendid  public  buildings  and  miles  of  fine 
business  blocks,  bears  little  resemblance  to  the 
pioneer  village  of  1541.  The  first  houses  were  built 
of  the  trunks  of  trees,  plastered  with  mud  and 
thatched  with  maize  stocks.  One  of  the  first  build- 
ings erected  was  a  little  temple  at  the  comer  of  the 
Plaza  de  Armas,  on  the  site  of  which  now  stands  the 
cathedral  of  Santiago,  the  comer-stone  of  the  Catho- 
lic church  in  Chile,  which  is  to-day  a  potent  politi- 
cal factor,  and  exercises  a  far-reaching  influence  in 
the  Republic,  through  its  representation  in  Congress 
and  in  the  press  of  the  countr^^ 

The  friendlv  relation  first  established  with  the  In- 
dians  by  Valdivia,  and  by  which  means  he  hoped 
to  take  peaceful  possession  of  the  country,  did  not 
long  continue.  The  necessity  of  means  and  greater 
resources  for  carrying  out  his  schemes  of  conquest 
encouraged  Valdivia  to  prospect  for  gold,  and  some 
mines  were  opened  near  the  port  of  Valparaiso.  In 
these  mines  Indians  were  placed  by  force  and 
worked  as  slaves.  In  return  for  the  gold  secured 
the  Spaniards  incurred  the  enmity  of  the  Indians, 
who  determined  to  kill  all  their  persecutors  as  a 
means  of  ending  the  tyranny  to  which  they  were 
subjected.    With  that  cunning  and  strategy  which 


32  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

has  always  characterized  the  Araucanians  in  war, 
tliey  waited  to  make  the  attack  until  Valdivia  was 
absent  on  an  exploring  expedition  in  the  south  with 
some  of  his  followers,  leaving  only  thirty  moimted 
and  twenty  foot  soldiers  to  guard  the  little  garrison 
at  Santiago.  For  fifteen  hours  the  fifty  men  held 
the  fort  which  was  besieged  and  assaulted  by  a  force 
of  Indians  numbering  six  thousand.  Finally  Cap- 
tain Alonso  de  Monroy,  who  was  in  charge  of  the 
Spanish  forces  changed  his  tactics  from  defensive  to 
the  offensive,  and  leading  his  little  band  of  soldiers 
attacked  the  Indians  with  such  courage  and  ferocity 
tliat,  notwithstanding  their  great  numbers  they  were 
driven  oif.  A  great  number  of  Indians  and  several 
of  the  soldiers  were  killed,  but  the  greatest  loss  suf- 
fered by  the  Spaniards  was  the  destruction  by  fire 
of  the  entire  village,  excei)t  the  fort.  When  Val- 
divia returned  he  found  himself  and  his  men  with- 
out houses  in  which  to  live,  and  without  provisions 
or  supplies,  everything  except  the  clothing  they  wore 
having  been  burned  or  destroyed  during  the  battle. 
After  several  years  of  indecisive  warfare,  in  which 
the  Spaniards  made  no  progress  in  the  way  of  con- 
quering the  Indians,  or  the  undisputed  occupation 
of  the  territory,  Valdivia  decided  to  return  to  Peru 
for  the  purpose  of  enlisting  a  more  formidable 
force  of  men  and  arms  with  which  to  prosecute  the 
war  against  the  Araucanians.  He  started  on  this 
mission  in  IS-IZ,  leaving  the  depleted  forces  in  Chile 
in  charge  of  Francisco  Villagran,  returning  two 
years  later  with  two  hundred  infantry  and  a  troop 
of  one  hundred  cavalry,  all  well  armed  and 
equipped.  Feeling  secure  with  this  army,  Valdivia 
began  an  aggressive  warfare  against  the  Araucani- 


BRIEF  HISTORY  .    33 

ans  immediately  after  his  arrival.  Soon  after  the  be- 
ginning of  this  war  several  important  battles  took 
place,  chief  among  which  was  that  of  Concepcion, 
in  which  over  two  thousand  Indians  were  killed  and 
two  hundred  taken  prisoners.  The  Spaniards  also 
lost  a  number  of  men  in  the  engagement.  Follow- 
ing his  cruel  instincts,  and  with  a  view  to  terroriz- 
ing the  Indians,  Valdivia  cut  off  the  right  hand  and 
the  nose  of  each  of  the  prisoners  captured  in  the 
battle,  and  then  released  them  to  return  to  their 
people,  maimed  and  disfigured.  This  act  of  cruelty, 
instead  of  having  the  desired  effect,  incensed  the 
Araucanians  to  greater  hostilities.  So  persistent 
became  their  pursuit  and  attack  that  the  Spaniards 
were  given  no  time  to  sleep  or  rest  from  the  strife. 
Day  and  night  they  were  harassed  by  the  Indians 
who  finally  collected  their  forces  for  a  decisive 
battle  at  Tucapel.  In  this  encounter  Valdivia  em- 
ployed the  same  tactics  used  in  other  engagements, 
charging  the  enemy  with  his  cavalry.  But  on  this 
occasion  the  Indians  seemed  to  be  innumerable  and 
invincible,  and  after  being  almost  annihilated,  the 
heroic  little  band  of  soldiers  were  forced  to  submit 
to  superior  numbers,  and  those  who  were  not  killed 
in  battle  wore  taken  prisoner,  Pedro  de  Valdivia 
being  among  the  latter.  When  brought  into  the 
presence  of  the  Araucanian  chief,  Valdivia  said: 
**If  you  will  give  me  my  liberty  I  will  promise  to 
retire  with  my  soldiers  from  the  country."  Pain- 
ful experience  had  taught  the  Indians  to  place  no 
value  upon  the  promises  of  the  Spaniards,  and  de- 
siring to  avenge  the  cruelties  inflicted  upon  their 
people,  they  refused  to  release  the  prisoners.  Val- 
divia was  tortured  with  all  the  horrible  cruelties  he 


34  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

liad  practiced  upon  the  Indians,  and  all  the  soldiers 
taken  at  Tuca]^el  were  put  to  a  tortuous  death. 

Soon  after  the  death  of  Valdivia,  the  colonial  gov- 
ernment in  Chile  was  organized  by  the  worst  class 
of  Spanish  Bohemians, — men  who  had  not  even  a 
chea])  or  spectacular  glory  to  their  credit,  and  who 
lacked  the  ca]iacity  or  disposition  to  engage  in  work 
of  any  character,  or  to  develop  the  resources  of  the 
country.  It  was  a  sad  and  calamitous  existence  the 
people  led  under  the  despotic  and  ruinous  misrule 
of  Spain.  Nothing  flourished  or  savored  of  good- 
ness. The  only  landmarks  of  civilization  left  from 
that  period  are  various  towns,  some  of  which  from 
geographical  positions  have  grown  into  important 
cities. 

All  traces  of  progress  lay  buried  beneath  bigotry 
and  tyranny.  The  sovereign  and  his  representatives 
retarded  development  and  advancement,  evincing 
only  selfish  and  unpatriotic  ambition  for  personal 
gain,  treacherous  deception  and  cruel  oppression. 
Chilean  officials  under  Castilian  rule  had  to  be 
Spanish  born,  and  with  impunity  they  plundered  the 
colony  of  all  that  was  worth  possessing.  For  nearly 
three  centuries  Chile  lived  with  modest  labor  in 
honest  poverty.  Those  conditions  served  as  ante- 
cedents to  the  special  characteristics  of  economy, 
industry,  independence  and  love  of  liberty  so  mani- 
fest in  the  Chileans  of  to-day. 

Then  there  was  little  communication  with  the  out- 
side world.  Colonists  suffered  and  endured  with- 
out encouragement,  hope  of  relief,  or  promise  of  bet- 
ter things.  But  during  those  turbulent  times,  those 
years  of  oppression  and  Spanish  misrule,  when  the 
Republican  idea  was  growing,  there  was  one  power- 


BRIEF  HISTORY  35 

ful  force  in  operation,  resenting  and  resisting  the^ 
authority  of  those  who  were  plundering  and  robbing 
the  country  in  the  name  of  law  and  civilization. 
That  force  was  the  courageous,  valiant,  uncon- 
quered  Araucanians  who  maintained  their  inde- 
pendence for  over  three  hundred  years,  j^referring 
annihilation  to  subjugation. 

A  great  majority  of  the  colonists  in  Chile  lived  in 
poverty  and  ignorance,  apparently  resigned  to  their 
unfortunate  condition.  For  two  hundred  and  fifty 
years  there  had  been  transmitted  from  jiarents  to 
children  the  idea  of  obedience  to  the  king,  believing 
that  person  to  be  of  divine  origin,  and  that  his  power 
was  omnipotent.  They  also  believed  that  the  Span- 
ish-American colonies  would  always  remain  subject 
to  the  authority  of  Spain.  Fortunately,  however, 
there  was  a  small  minority  that  entertained  a  hope 
of  relief  from  the  rule  of  oppression.  This  hope 
was  encouraged,  and  the  idea  of  independence  im- 
planted in  the  minds  of  the  people,  by  the  revolution 
of  the  English  colonists,  the  declaration  of  inde- 
pendence of  the  United  States,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  the  first  American  Republic.  The  success 
of  the  North  American  patriots  encouraged  the 
revolutionary  idea  in  Cliile  to  such  an  extent  that  in 
1810,  when  Spain  was  involved  in  the  turmoil  of  a 
general  European  war,  the  opportunity  was  seized 
by  the  colonists  to  secure  their  independence,  which 
was  declared  September  18,  1810. 

The  new  Republic,  born  of  patriotism  and  chris- 
tened in  war,  was  destined  to  struggle  through  its 
first  years  of  existence  in  poverty,  and  afflicted  with 
that  most  fatal  of  national  maladies,  internal  strife. 
The  people,  long  subject  to  despotic  rule,  filled  with 


36  PEOGRESSIVE  CHILE 

doubt  and  distrust  of  those  who  promised  better 
things,  had  little  experience,  training  or  knowledge 
to  fit  them  for  the  political  liberty  they  had  been  so 
anxious  to  secure,  and  in  possession  of  which  they 
found  themselves.  Inexperienced  in  self-govern- 
ment, depressed  with  poverty,  disturbed  with  inter- 
nal dissensions  and  burdened  with  exploded  the- 
ories, Chile  began  to  set  her  national  house  in  order 
without  example  or  precedent  to  guide  her  in  the 
experiment. 

The  government  of  Chile,  organized  in  Santiago, 
September  18,  1810,  was  provisional  and  experimen- 
tal, consisting  of  a  ''junta"  (committee  of  sixty 
persons,  with  Mateo  de  Toro  y  Zambrano  as  presi- 
dent of  the  junta,  and  in  fact  the  first  president  of 
independent  Chile.  On  July  4  of  the  following  year 
an  election  was  held  at  which  congressional  deputies 
were  selected.  A  month  later  the  national  congress 
appointed  a  government  junta,  composed  of  three 
persons.  The  first  laws  of  the  new  government  were 
promulgated  in  August,  1811,  among  which  was  one 
prohibiting  the  importation  of  slaves,  and  declaring 
freedom  to  the  children  of  all  slaves  then  in  the 
country.  Thus  did  the  young  Republic  place  her 
seal  of  disapproval  upon  slavery,  thereby  setting  an 
example  for  other  nations,  including  the  United 
States,  after  which  the  Chilean  Republic  was 
modeled. 

For  more  than  twenty  years  after  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  government  the  country  was  rent  by 
jealousy,  dissension,  revolution  and  general  disor- 
der. The  patriots  who  were  struggling  for  national 
life  and  independence,  and  who  were  confident  that 
out  of  chaos  would  come  order,  peace  and  pros- 


BRIEF  HISTORY  37 

perity,  had  to  contend  not  only  with  an  aggressive 
foreign  foe,  but  to  encounter  intrigue  and  disloyalty 
at  home.  During  the  first  decade  of  national  life, 
numerous  able  and  courageous  men  endeavored  to 
direct  the  Ship  of  State  through  the  turbulent  sea 
of  strife  and  discord  to  a  safe  and  secure  harbor. 
None  succeeded,  but  many  contributed  materially  to 
the  final  solution  of  the  problem  of  government  by 
the  people.  Among  those  who  were  conspicuous  in 
the  service  of  the  country  during  its  formative 
period  may  be  mentioned  Juan  Martinez  de  Rozas, 
Camilo  Henriquez,  Manuel  Salas,  Admiral  Blanco 
Encalada  and  Lord  Cochrane.  But  the  two  charac- 
ters that  stand  out  most  conspicuously,  the  names 
that  are  inscribed  first  upon  the  roll  of  honor  of 
Chilean  patriots,  the  men  who  contributed  most  to 
the  establishment  of  order  and  law  in  the  govern- 
ment, are  Bernardo  O'Higgins,  the  first  capable, 
courageous  Governor  of  Chile,  and  the  brave,  patri- 
otic San  Martin,  who  united  the  forces  of  the  Argen- 
tine with  those  of  Chile,  Bolivia  and  Peru,  for  the 
purpose  of  putting  an  end  to  Spanish  rule,  and 
establishing  independent  government  in  the  several 
colonies. 

O'Higgins  was  Governor  from  1817  to  1823,  dur- 
ing which  time  he  used  his  splendid  executive  ability 
in  an  honest  effort  to  establish  law  and  order,  and 
to  introduce  some  kind  of  system  into  the  govern- 
ment. After  six  years  of  vain  endeavor,  and  believ- 
ing that  the  people  were  unprepared  for  self-govern- 
ment, he  resigned,  asked  permission  to  leave  the 
country,  and  went  to  Peru.  General  0  'Higgins  was 
succeeded  as  Governor  by  Ramon  Freire,  who  held 
the  position  for  three  years,  1826.     Then  followed  a 


38  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

period  of  several  years  during  wliich  the  country 
was  in  a  state  of  political  anarchy.  Changes  of  gov- 
ernment were  so  frequent  that  it  was  impossible  to 
maintain  anything  like  law  and  order.  Revolutions, 
conspiracies  and  intrigue  were  organized  and  prac- 
ticed by  political  combinations  and  individuals.  In- 
dependent government  was  a  theory  only,  and  many 
sincere  patriots  doubted  the  wisdom  of  further 
eifort  to  establish  and  maintain  a  Republic,  believ- 
ing that  existing  conditions  were  even  worse  than 
Spanish  rule. 

The  theory  that  if  the  seed  of  independence  is 
once  planted  in  the  soil  of_ public  opinion,  it  will  ulti- 
mately bring  forth  a  harvest  of  good  national  re- 
sults, holds  true  in  the  case  of  Chile.  For  notwith- 
standing the  political  disorder,  frequent  changes  of 
government  and  the  sanguinary  revolutions  that 
prevailed  from  the  tirst,  the  declaration  of  inde- 
pendence produced  beneficent  results.  The  greatest 
of  these  benefits  was  the  liberty  of  trade  and  free- 
dom of  commerce.  People  were  permitted  to  buy 
and  sell  merchandise  when,  where  and  to  whom 
they  pleased,  while  under  the  colonial  system  all 
commercial  privileges  were  controlled  by  the  crown ; 
and  while  Chile  was  under  the  authority  of  Spain, 
foreigners  were  not  i3ermitted  to  engage  in  trade 
in  the  colony. 

Under  the  influence  of  approaching  peace,  the 
gradual  amalgamation  of  political  factions  into 
united  parties,  the  expansion  of  trade  and  the  de- 
velopment of  the  country's  natural  resources,  the 
young  Republic  developed  national  life  to  such  an 
extent  that  a  political  constitution  was  promulgated 
on  May  25,  1833.     The  independence  of  the  Reijublic 


BRIEF  HISTORY  39 

was  not  recognized  by  Spain,  however,  until  1846. 
The  constitution  gave  to  the  president  authority  as 
ample  as  that  possessed  by  the  king,  over  the 
colonies,  authorizing-  hiin  to  use  in  certain  cases  and 
emergencies  extraordinary  powers  even  to  the  sus- 
pension of  the  constitutional  authority.  These  pro- 
visions were  embodied  in  the  constitution  for  the 
purpose  of  suppressing  political  anarchy  and  revolu- 
tion, which  had  so  often  interrupted  the  progress 
and  threatened  the  life  of  the  Republic  from  the  time 
of  its  organization,  without  waiting  for  congres- 
sional approval.  The  constitution  as  adopted  in 
1833  remained  unchanged  until  1868.  Since  that 
date  various  amendments  have  been  adopted,  limit- 
ing the  powers  of  the  executive,  and  adjusting  con- 
stitutional authority  and  law  to  meet  the  changed 
conditions  of  the  times  and  the  country. 

FORM    OF   GOVERNMENT. 

The  form  of  government  under  the  constitution 
adopted  in  1833  is  republican  with  legislative,  ex- 
ecutive and  judicial  branches.  The  legislative 
power  is  vested  in  the  National  Congress,  consist- 
ing of  a  Senate  and  House  of  Deputies,  the  former, 
under  the  latest  census,  being  composed  of  37,  and 
the  latter  of  108  members.  Senators  are  elected 
for  a  term  of  six  years,  one-half  the  number  being 
elected  every  three  years.  Members  of  the  lower 
branch  of  Congress  are  elected  for  three  years  by 
direct  vote,  the  apportionment  being  one  for  every 
30,000  inhabitants  or  fraction  of  not  less  than  15,- 
000.  Congress  is  in  session  from  June  1  to  Sep- 
tember 1  of  each  year.  During  the  recess  of  that 
body  a  permanent  committee  consisting  of  seven 


40  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

senators  and  seven  deputies  acts  for  Congress,  and 
is  consulted  by  the  executive  upon  all  questions  of 
importance. 

The  president  is  elected  for  a  term  of  five  years 
by  electors  who  are  chosen  by  direct  vote.  He  is 
ineligible  to  election  for  two  consecutive  terms. 
The  salary  of  the  chief  executive  is  60,000  pesos, 
equal  to  about  $20,000  in  U.  S.  currency.  He  is 
assisted  by  a  Council  of  State  consisting  of  11 
members,  six  of  whom  are  appointed  by  Con- 
gress and  five  by  the  president;  and  also  by  six 
cabinet  ministers  who  are  named  by  the  executive, 
but  are  responsible  to  the  Congress. 

The  constitution  having  become  an  established 
law,  Chile  made  rapid  progress  along  the  road  of 
national  life,  leading  to  order,  authority  and  pros- 
perity. But  it  was  not  until  Manuel  Montt,  who 
was  president  from  1851  to  1861,  had  put  down  two 
revolutions  that  order  and  executive  authority  were 
firmly  established,  and  the  force  of  organized  na- 
tional defense  demonstrated.  In  1861  Montt  was 
succeeded  as  president  by  Jose  Joaquin  Perez,  who 
continued  as  chief  executive  for  ten  years.  The  con- 
dition of  law  and  order  that  was  established  and 
maintained  by  the  government  previous  to  his  elec- 
tion continued  throughout  his  two  administrations, 
and  national  authority  was  extended  and  enlarged 
until  liberty  of  action  and  speech  was  insured  to 
every  citizen  of  the  Republic.  By  his  political 
moderation  and  conciliation.  President  Perez  estab- 
lished a  feeling  of  internal  peace  and  security  that 
had  not  been  previously  felt  in  the  country.  Un- 
fortunately Chile  was  soon  to  be  disturbed  again 
by  a  war-cloud  upon  the  peaceful  horizon.     Having 


BRIEF  HISTORY  41 

secured  their  own  freedom,  and  established  an  in- 
dependent government,  the  patriotic  people  were  not 
content  to  remain  inditf  erent  to  the  arbitrary  actions 
of  Spain  in  taking  forceful  possession  of  the  Chin- 
cha  Islands  in  1865.  By  force  of  public  opinion  and 
popular  sentiment,  President  Perez  was  compelled 
to  make  an  alliance  with  Peru,  Bolivia  and  Ecuador, 
to  defend  the  interests  of  South  American  Repub- 
lics against  the  domination  of  Spain. 

Spain  sent  a  fleet  to  blockade  the  ports  of  Chile, 
which  was  not  a  difficult  undertaking,  as  the  Chilean 
navy  then  consisted  of  one  gunboat,  the  Esmeralda. 
On  November  26,  the  Esmeralda,  under  command  of 
Captain  William  Rebolledo,  made  a  brilliant  coup 
by  attacking  and  capturing  the  Spanish  corvette, 
Covadonga,  which  daring  deed  was  accomplished 
within  view  of  the  Spanish  squadron  blockading  the 
harbor  of  Valparaiso.  The  admiral  commanding 
the  fleet  was  so  humiliated  by  the  fact  that  one  of 
his  ships  had  been  taken  by  the  Chileans  that  he 
committed  suicide  on  board  his  flagship,  a  few  hours 
afterwards. 

To  avenge  the  loss,  and  apparently  as  an  act  of 
spite  inspired  by  the  humiliating  incident  of  the 
Covadonga,  Spain  sent  a  more  powerful  fleet  to 
Valparaiso,  and  on  March  31,  1866,  bombarded  the 
city,  causing  considerable  loss  of  life,  and  destruc- 
tion of  property  to  the  value  of  fifteen  million 
dollars. 

At  that  time  Valparaiso  had  no  land  fortifica- 
tions nor  means  of  resisting  an  attack  from  a  hostile 
fleet,  and  Spain's  action  in  bombarding  the  port  has 
been  generally  condemned.  This  apparent  unjusti- 
fiable  destruction   of   a   defenseless    city   was   the 


42  PEOGRESSIVE  CHILE 

last  armed  domoiistration  of  Spain  in  South 
America.  For  three  centuries  she  attempted  to  gov- 
ern Chile  as  a  colony,  and  for  the  first  fifty  years  of 
national  life  of  the  Republic  the  threatening  attitude 
of  the  parent  government  continued  as  a  menace 
and  an  obstacle  to  progress  and  industrial  develop- 
ment. Peace  was  not  estal)lished  between  the  two 
countries  until  1884,  but  after  the  bombardment  of 
Valparaiso,  there  was  no  further  hostile  demonstra- 
tion, and  Chile  was  permitted  to  direct  the  force  of 
her  energies  towards  building  up  neglected  national 
institutions  and  developing  the  natural  resources  of 
the  country. 

The  bombardment  of  Valparaiso  forced  upon 
Chile  a  realization  of  her  defenseless  position 
against  attack  from  a  naval  force.  Without  a  navy 
to  defend  her  extensive  coast  country,  or  fortifica- 
tions with  which  to  protect  her  ports,  she  was  at  the 
mercy  of  any  maritime  power.  To  meet  this  re- 
quirement and  to  strengthen  her  national  position, 
she  acquired  a  formidable  navy,  the  most  powerful 
in  South  America,  and  constructed  modern  fortifica- 
tions in  all  the  principal  ports.  Since  that  time 
Chile  has  been  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  formid- 
able and  aggressive  naval  and  military  powers 
among  the  Latin-American  Republics. 

During  the  administration  of  President  Perez  the 
liberal  element  in  the  Republic  began  to  assert  it- 
self, and  to  demand  political  reforms.  This  was  the 
first  demonstration  and  sliow  of  resistance  against 
the  conservative  church  party,  which  had  been  in 
control  of  the  government  since  its  formation.  The 
program  of  the  liberals  was:  ''The  absolute  guar- 
antee of  personal  liberty;  that  local  governments 


BRIEF  HISTORY  43 

shall  be  invested  with  that  complete  iiidepeiidence 
necessary  for  the  thorough  exercise  of  their  prerog- 
atives; that  the  diiferent  branches  of  government 
shall  be  independent  of  each  other,  that  all  persons 
shall  be  equal  before  the  law  and  that  all  special 
privileges  shall  be  abolished."  This  was  a  move 
from  the  oligarchy  towards  democracy.  The  liber- 
als scored  their  first  victory  in  1868,  when  Congress 
X^assed  an  amendment  to  the  constitution,  making  the 
president  ineligible  to  reelection.  The  laws  pro- 
viding for  civil  responsibility,  for  political  treason, 
and  imprisonment  for  debt  were  also  abolished  by 
the  same  Congress. 

Don  Federico  Errazuriz,  who  was  elected  to  the 
presidency  in  1871,  was  a  man  of  scholarly  attain- 
ments, and  had  had  a  long  and  varied  experience  in 
public  life.  He  had  been  minister  of  foreign  affairs, 
of  the  interior,  of  justice,  and  of  war,  and  had  served 
in  both  branches  of  the  legislative  body. 

During  the  administration  of  President  Errazu- 
riz, the  liberal  party  succeeded  in  passing  a  number 
of  reformatory  measures,  among  which  was  one  pro- 
viding that  the  clergy  should  be  amenable  to  the 
civil  authorities,  and  further  that  all  sects  might 
worship  in  churches  erected  by  private  enterprise. 
The  president  also  decreed  that  space  should  be  re- 
served in  catholic  or  public  cemeteries  for  the  in- 
terment of  dissenters,  who  could  be  given  the  right 
of  burial  according  to  the  form  of  their  respective 
denominations.  Against  these  acts  the  clerical 
party  filed  a  remonstrance  which  was  signed  by  the 
Archbishop  of  Santiago;  and  members  of  Congress 
who  voted  for  the  measures,  as  well  as  magistrates 
who    should    attempt    to    enforce    the    laws,    were 


44  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

tlireatened  with  excommimication  from  the  church. 
But  those  progressive  measures  still  remain  upon 
the  statute  books  of  Chile. 

Don  Anibal  Pinto  succeeded  Don  Federico  Erra- 
zuriz  as  president  in  1876.  His  administration  was 
early  confronted  with  a  financial  crisis,  and  in  1878 
the  government  authorized  the  banks  to  suspend 
specie  payment,  and  guaranteed  their  emission  of 
paper  money  to  the  amount  of  $15,500,000,  which 
was  made  redeemable  in  coin  on  August  31,  1879. 
A  year  later  the  government  found  it  necessary  to 
resort  to  a  second  issue  of  paper  currency  to  the 
amount  of  $6,000,000. 

The  church  question,  which  had  been  made  the 
paramount  political  issue  in  previous  campaigns 
continued  with  unabated  zeal  and  acrimony  through- 
out President  Pinto's  administration.  In  1878  the 
Archbishop  of  Santiago  died,  and  the  government 
recommended  the  appointment  of  Don  Francisco  de 
Paula  Taforo  as  his  successor.  The  clergy  of  the 
country  opposed  the  appointment,  but  the  govern- 
ment maintained  that  inasmuch  as  the  State  sup- 
ported the  ecclesiastical  officials,  the  civil  authorities 
should  name  the  church  dignitaries.  After  a  bitter 
contest  lasting  for  several  years  an  apostolic  dele- 
gate was  sent  from  Rome  to  make  report  on  the 
affair.  He  was  expelled  by  President  Santa  Maria, 
who  succeeded  President  Pinto,  and  the  victory  was 
won  by  the  government. 

Throughout  the  administrations  of  Presidents 
Perez,  Errazuriz,  and  Pinto  the  country  made  rapid 
advancement  along  the  road  of  national  progress 
and  civilization.  Previous  to  that  time  all  reforms 
and  advanced  measures  were  initiated  and  directed 


BEIEF  HISTORY  45 

by  the  executive,  whose  political  power  made  him 
practically  the  government. 

Neither  the  House  of  Deputies  nor  the  Senate 
made  any  pretense  to  parliamentary  rule  or  order. 
In  both  national  and  private  life  the  poor  but  honest 
element  predominated.  People  earned  a  legitimate 
livelihood  by  honest  industry,  and  wanton  extrava- 
gance was  little  known. 

THE  WAR  OF  1879. 

There  are  various  versions  of  the  causes  leading 
up  to  the  war  between  Chile,  Peru  and  Bolivia,  but 
the  immediate  cause  of  hostilities,  which  placed 
Chile  in  possession  of  the  greatest  nitrate  fields  in 
the  world,  was  the  cession  by  the  Bolivian  govern- 
ment to  the  Anglo-Peruvian  firm  of  Gibbs  &  Com- 
pany, of  the  right  to  work  the  nitrate  deposits  north 
of  twenty-four  degrees  south,  to  construct  a  mole  at 
Antofagasta  and  build  a  railway  to  some  mines  in 
the  interior.  Later  this  firm  disjoosed  of  a  portion 
of  its  concessions  to  a  Chilean  company,  the  ^^Com- 
pania  Salitres  y  Ferrocarril  de  Antofagasta." 
"When  the  Bolivian  government  discovered  that 
Chilean  capital  and  industry  were  developing  the 
desert  into  a  source  of  wealth,  it  laid  an  export 
bounty  of  ten  cents  per  hundred  weight  upon  manu- 
factured nitrate  of  soda.  The  Compania  Salitres  y 
Ferrocarril  objected  to  pajdng  export  duties  upon 
the  products  of  its  properties,  and  appealed  to  Chile 
for  protection.  Bolivia  then  threatened  to  seize  all 
nitrate  in  the  hands  of  exporters.  The  Chilean  gov- 
ernment protested  against  this  arbitrary  action  and 
sent  a  fleet  to  blockade  the  ports  of  Antofagasta, 
Cobija  and  Tocopilla.     On  February  14,  1879,  Chile 


46  PEOGRESSIVE  CHILE 

took  possession  of  Antofagasta  and  sent  troops  to 
the  interior  to  protect  the  property  interests  of  its 
citizens.  General  Hilarion  Daza,  President  of  Bo- 
livia, then  declared  war,  expelled  some  Chilenos 
from  the  country  and  confiscated  their  properties. 
Thus  the  fraternity  and  harmony  of  interests  of  the 
neighboring  Eepublics  were  destroyed,  the  trumpets 
of  war  sounded,  and  the  result  was  a  change  in  the 
map  of  South  America. 

Peru  tendered  her  services  as  mediator  and  sent 
special  envoys  to  Santiago  and  LaPaz.  But  Chile, — 
having  knowledge  of  a  secret  treaty  celebrated  be- 
tween Bolivia  and  Peru  in  1873,  the  purpose  of 
which  was  declared  to  be  the  mutual  guarantee  of  the 
independence,  sovereignty  and  territorial  integrity 
of  the  two  republics,  and  mutual  defense  against 
aggression, — the  proj^osition  was  looked  upon 
by  Chile  with  distrust.  Peru  proposed  that  Chilean 
troops  should  evacuate  Antofagasta ;  that  the  three 
republics  should  guarantee  a  neutral  administration 
of  affairs.  Chile  demanded  the  annulment  of  the 
secret  treaty  of  1873,  and  that  preparations  for  war 
on  the  part  of  Peru  should  cease.  These  proposi- 
tions were  rejected,  and  Chile  declared  war  against 
the  allies  on  April  5,  1879. 

Hostilities  began  at  once  and  in  earnest,  both 
upon  land  and  sea,  continuing  until  Cliile  gained  her 
final  victories  in  the  battles  of  Miraflores  and 
Chorrillos,  January  13,  1881,  and  four  days  later  the 
victorious  troops  marched  into  Lima  and  occuined 
the  Peruvian  capital.  The  campaign  was  a  succes- 
sion of  brilliant  victories  and  achievements  for  the 
Chilean  arms. 

Peru  believed  her  navy  superior  to  that  of  Chile, 


BRIEF  HISTORY  47 

but  she  had  not  reckoned  the  valor,  skill  and  zeal 
of  the  patriotic  Chilean  officers,  whose  feats  won 
for  them  not  only  victory,  but  the  admiration  of  the 
world,  and  established  for  Chile  an  international 
reputation  as  a  fighting  nation.  Equally  brilliant 
and  successful  was  the  campaigii  of  the  land  forces. 
In  the  battles  of  Pisagua,  Tacna,  Arica,  and  finally 
at  Miraflores  the  Chilean  troops  were  invincible. 

Among  those  who  distinguished  themselves  in  the 
navy  during  the  war  with  Peru  and  Boli\'ia  was 
Captain  Arturo  Prat,  who  gave  up  his  life  in  the 
battle  of  Iquique,  where,  after  his  ship,  the  Esmer- 
alda, had  been  disabled  and  w^as  being  rammed  by 
the  Peruvian  cruiser  Huascar,  leaped  from  the  deck 
of  his  own  vessel  to  that  of  the  enemy,  and  with  his 
sword  attacked  single-handed  the  forces  that  con- 
fronted him  in  overwhelming  numbers.  There  is  in 
the  Plaza  Intendencia,  Valparaiso,  a  handsome 
bronze  monument  erected  to  the  memory  of  Arturo 
Prat,  whose  heroic  deeds  and  valiant  service  fonn 
some  of  the  most  brilliant  chapters  in  the  history 
of  his  country.  Admiral  Patricio  Lynch  was  an- 
other naval  officer  with  a  foreign  name  who  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  war  with  Peru,  and  later  re- 
ceived the  title  of  general  for  meritorious  service  in 
the  Chilean  army.  During  the  occupation  of  Lima, 
by  the  Chilean  forces.  Admiral  Lynch  was  placed 
in  command  of  the  troops  in  the  Peruvian  capital, 
where  he  remained  in  charge  until  April,  1884, 
when  the  treaty  of  peace  was  ratified  and  Chile 
withdrew  her  army  from  the  conquered  country. 

By  the  treaty  of  peace  celebrated  with  Bolivia  on 
December  11,  1882,  Cliile  obtained  all  the  latter 's 
seacoast,  including  the  port  of  Cobija,  privileges  for 


48  PEOGKESSIVE  CHILE 

constimctin^^  railways  into  the  interior  and  twenty 
per  cent,  of  Bolivian  port  customs. 

The  treaty  between  Chile  and  Peru,  which  was 
signed  at  Aneon,  on  October  20,  1883,  contained  pro- 
visions that  led  to  complications  which  still  leave 
the  question  of  final  settlement  in  dispute ;  complica- 
tions that  resulted  in  a  discontinuance  of  diplomatic 
relations,  which  at  times  became  so  strained  that 
another  conflict  at  arms  seemed  imminent.  Peru 
ceded  to  Chile  the  province  of  Tarapaca,  forever 
and  unconditionally.  In  lieu  of  $10,000,000  cash  in- 
demnity, and  as  security  for  pajanent  of  same,  the 
territory  constituting  the  provinces  of  Tacna  and 
Arica  i^assed  into  the  possession  of  Chile  for  a 
period  of  ten  years,  at  the  end  of  which  time  the 
ownership  of  the  territory  was  to  be  determined  by 
a  vote  of  the  legal  residents  of  those  i:)rovinces. 
Whatever  the  result  of  the  election,  the  country  to 
which  the  provinces  should  be  annexed,  engaged  to 
pay  the  other  $10,000,000  in  cash.  The  time  limit 
for  this  provision  of  the  treaty  expired  in  1894,  and 
Peru  not  being  prepared  to  comply  with  its  require- 
ments, Chile  continued  in  possession  of  the  terri- 
tory, and  the  question  of  Tacna  and  Arica  re- 
mained a  disputed  one. 

THE   TACNA  AND  ARICA   QUESTION. 

A  few  years  later  Peru  became  more  prosperous 
through  the  development  of  her  rich  mineral  re- 
sources and  began  pressing  for  a  settlement  of  the 
question.  To  the  arbitration  proposition  presented 
by  Peru  Chile  maintained  that  there  was  nothing 
to  arbitrate.  In  1905  Peru  presented  her  side  of 
the    question    in    the    fonn    of    a    written    protest 


BRIEF  HISTORY  49 

against  certain  proposed  industrial  improvements 
in  the  disputed  territory.  The  reply  of  the  Chilean 
government  to  the  arguments  offered  in  the  protest 
was  an  able  statement  of  the  case,  which  left  little 
doubt  in  the  minds  of  those  familiar  with  the  sub- 
ject that  it  was  Chile's  intention  to  retain  posses- 
sion of  the  territory  in  question. 

In  June  1905  diplomatic  relations  between  the 
two  republics  were  resumed,  and  Peru  sent  Don 
Manuel  Alvarez  Calderon  as  Envoy  Extraordinary 
and  Minister  Plenipotentiary  to  Santiago,  where  he 
was  warmly  received  by  President  Riesco  and  his 
Cabinet  Ministers.  In  his  address  in  presenting 
his  credentials  to  the  President  of  Chile,  on  No- 
vember 4,  1905,  Seiior  Calderon  stated  that  he  was 
charged  with  the  task  of  settling  outstanding  ques- 
tions in  conformity  with  treaty  stipulations,  mean- 
ing, it  was  understood,  the  Tacna  and  Arica  ques- 
tion. In  February  1906  the  Chilean  government 
named  Don  Rafael  Balmaceda  as  Envoy  Extraor- 
dinary and  Minister  Plenipotentiary  to  Peru. 

The  more  amicable  relations  resulting  from  the 
appointment  of  diplomatic  representatives  contin- 
ued until  1909  when  Chile  proposed  the  taking  of 
the  plebiscite  on  certain  bases  which  were  then  con- 
sidered unacceptable  by  Peru,  and  diplomatic  rela- 
tions were  again  broken  off  by  the  latter  country. 
The  main  points  at  issue  in  this  instance  involved 
the  questions  of  who  were  to  constitute  the  voters, 
who  should  preside  at  the  proceedings  of  the  pleb- 
iscite, and  at  what  date  the  election  to  secure  an 
expression  of  the  residents  of  the  disputed  terri- 
tory should  take  place. 

During  the  year  1912  an  effort  was  made  on  the 


50  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

part  of  the  respective  governments  to  agree  upon 
tenns  acceptable  to  both  countries  for  the  celebra- 
tion of  the  plebiscite  provided  for  in  the  treaty  of 
Ancon,  to  determine  the  nationality  of  the  jorov- 
inces  of  Tacna  and  Arica,  and  the  following  general 
agreement  was  reached : 

Peru  agrees  that  all  inhabitants,  whether  Chil- 
ean or  Peruvian,  shall  have  the  right  to  vote,  pro- 
vided that  they  enjoy  electoral  rights  under  the 
constitutions  of  their  respective  governments. 
This  is  the  proposition  made  by  Chile  in  1909,  ex- 
cept that  she  was  willing  to  include  foreigners 
amongst  the  voters,  while  Peru  insisted  on  their 
exclusion.  Chile  assuming  that  the  plebiscite  would 
then  take  place  at  once,  proposed  six  months'  resi- 
dence as  a  necessary  condition  for  voters,  and  Peru 
demanded  that  the  time  be  extended  to  three  years. 
The  plebiscite  under  the  latest  arrangement  is  to  be 
postponed  for  twenty-one  years,  during  which  inter- 
val it  is  hoped  and  believed  that  the  prejudices  en- 
gendered by  the  war,  and  the  ill-feeling  existing  on 
the  part  of  the  citizens  of  both  republics  living  in  the 
disputed  territory  will  greatly  change  for  the  better, 
and  lessen  the  chances  of  a  conflict  in  the  final  set- 
tlement of  a  difficult  question  of  long  standing. 

Peru  is  w^illing  to  accede  the  claim  to  preside  at 
the  taking  of  the  plebiscite,  and  the  president  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  Chile  will  preside.  The  rest  of 
the  board  will  be  composed  of  two  Chileans  and  two 
Peruvians,  and  final  decision  will  be  reached  by  the 
majority. 

The  most  important  feature  of  the  arrangements, 
however,  is  the  contem])lated  treaty  of  commerce 
and  navigation,  by  which  both  countries  hope  to 


BRIEF  HISTORY  51 

create  siicli  a  powerful  influence  for  peace  tliat  the 
question  which  for  so  many  years  has  proven  an 
insuperable  difficulty  to  the  best  efforts  of  the 
statesmen  of  both  countries  will  play  a  secondary 
and  unimportant  part  in  the  relations  between  the 
two  republics. 

Chile  is  no  longer  disposed  to  treat  with  Peru  in 
a  conciliatory  manner,  or  submit  to  arbitration  a 
question  in  which  she  has  the  right  of  possession. 
Having  settled  peacefully  the  long  standing  bound- 
ary dispute  with  the  Argentine  Republic,  which  for 
a  quarter  of  a  century  hung  like  a  war  cloud  over 
the  Cordilleras,  and  got  possession  of  Bolivia 
"tregua"  (tentatively),  by  means  of  a  treaty  of 
peace  and  amity,  Chile  is  no  longer  afraid  of  a  triple 
alliance  with  the  Argentine,  Bolivia  and  Peru,  which 
once  menaced  her  security  and  national  life. 

When  the  Spanish-American  colonies  united  to  se- 
cure their  independence  from  Spain  it  was  mutually 
agreed  that  there  should  be  no  *^no  man's  land." 
To  attain  this  end  it  was  covenanted  that  the 
boundaries  of  the  new  Republics  should  be  those 
assigned  to  each  as  a  colony.  In  many  instances 
those  boundaries  were  ill  defined,  and  in  others  con- 
jectural or  imaginary.  As  explorations  proceeded 
these  errors  were  discovered  and  naturally  gave  rise 
to  territorial  questions  between  neighboring  nations. 

Chile  had  but  two  neighbors  and  she  had  boundary 
disputes  with  both.  The  dispute  with  the  Argentine 
led  to  the  erection  of  a  fort  and  the  founding  of  a  set- 
tlement in  the  Strait  of  Magellan  by  Chile  in  1843. 
From  that  time  until  the  boundary  award  by  King 
Edward  in  1903,  the  two  republics  were  in  a  contin- 
ual  controversy   over  territorial  limits,   which  on 


52  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

more  than  one  occasion  led  them  to  the  brink  of 
war.  With  her  other  neiglihor,  Bolivia,  Chile  had 
a  boundary  dispute  which  has  had  far-reaching  con- 
sequences. A  modus  Vivendi  which  seemed  to 
promise  lasting  peace  was  agreed  upon.  Contrary 
to  expectation,  however,  the  agreement  produced 
war,  procuring  for  Chile  another  neighbor  and  still 
another  territorial  dispute.  Previous  to  the  war  of 
the  Pacific,  the  province  of  Antofagasta,  which  was 
Bolivian  territory,  separated  Cliile  and  Peru,  but  as 
a  result  of  that  war  Chile  came  into  possession  of 
the  province  of  Antofagasta  and  consequently  be- 
came a  neighbor  to  Peru.  Surrounded  as  she  was 
then  with  three  Republics  individually  and  collec- 
tively maintaining  a  hostile  attitude  to  her  inde- 
pendent and  aggressive  policy,  Chile  was  placed  in 
a  peculiarly  delicate  and  dangerous  political  posi- 
tion. If  one  of  her  three  neighbors  made  a  move 
in  its  boundary  question  the  other  two  pressed  for 
a  settlement  of  similar  claims. 

During  the  civil  conflict  in  Chile  her  three  neigh- 
bors took  advantage  of  the  internal  disturbance  to 
urge  settlement  of  their  boundary  questions.  And 
when  the  relations  between  Argentina  and  Chile  be- 
came so  strained  as  to  make  war  imminent,  Bolivia 
and  Peru  assumed  a  most  aggressive  attitude  in 
demanding  a  settlement  of  the  questions  growing 
out  of  the  war  of  79.  Chile  has  not  forgotten  these 
acts  of  her  neighbors,  but  her  attitude  is  not  one  of 
resentment.  Her  desire  is  for  peace,  as  has  been 
demonstrated  by  her  generous  and  amicable  adjust- 
ment of  differences  with  Bolivia  and  Argentina; 
peace  at  home  and  abroad,  but  peace  with  honor. 
She  governs  her  sword  in  accordance  with  the  motto 


BEIEF  HISTORY  53 

of  the  Castilian  Hidalgo:  ''No  me  desenvainas  sin 
causa;  no  me  envainas  sin  honor."  (I  do  not  un- 
sheath  my  sword  without  cause;  I  do  not  sheath  it 
without  honor.) 

The  territorial  questions  of  Chile  with  Argentina 
and  Bolivia  have  been  definitely  settled,  and  the 
three  countries  have  been  greatly  benefited  thereby. 
Chile  and  the  Argentine  have  been  relieved  of  the 
enormous  drain  upon  their  resources  in  the  purchase 
of  ships  and  preparations  for  war,  and  under  treaty 
arrangements  capital  is  seeking  investment  in  Bo- 
livia in  the  development  of  its  natural  resources. 
The  only  outstanding  territorial  question  that  Chile 
now  has  to  deal  with  is  that  relating  to  Tacna  and 
Arica. 

Bolivia's  loss  in  the  war  with  Chile  was  irrepar- 
able, depriving  it  of  all  coast  territory  and  an  outlet 
to  the  sea.  It  now  occupies  the  unique  position  of 
being  one  of  two  inland  countries  in  the  sisterhood 
of  South  American  Republics.  After  the  war  Chile 
took  possession  of  the  long  strip  of  desert  bordering 
on  the  Pacific,  which  furnished  Bolivia  access  to  the 
ocean  and  direct  communication  with  the  outside 
world.  The  territory  is  a  rainless  region,  devoid  of 
vegetation,  but  beneath  its  surface  are  nitrate  de- 
posits sufficient  to  supply  the  world,  and  its  acquisi- 
tion made  Chile  the  richest  country  on  the  globe,  in 
proportion  to  its  population.  It  derives  from  that 
source  ^about  90,000,000  pesos,  equal  to  $30,000,000 
United  States  currency,  or  $8.50  per  capita,  annu- 
ally. The  source  of  this  enormous  revenue  has  be- 
come the  permanent  possession  of  Chile.  Bolivia 
has  apparently  abandoned  the  idea  of  pressing  fur- 
ther claims  for  readjustment  of  questions  growing 


KA 


PEOGRESSIVE  CHILE 


out  of  the  war,  and  is  endeavoring-  to  make  the  best 
of  a  bad  situation  by  devek))nng  the  resources  of 
her  remaining  territory  and  promoting  her  indus- 
trial interests.  In  1905  she  celebrated  a  treaty  of 
commerce  and  amity  with  Chile,  which  provides 
among  other  things  for  the  building  of  a  system  of 
railroads  through  the  provinces  of  Tacna  and  Arica, 
thereby  giving  to  Bolivia  access  to  Pacific  ports,  pro- 
viding means  of  communication  and  facilities  for 
transporting  her  products  to  the  coast,  as  well  as 
to  ports  of  entry. 

Bolivia  also  has  a  large  scheme  of  railway-build- 
ing of  her  own,  some  of  the  more  important 
branches  of  which  will  connect  with  the  lines  built 
bj^  Chile,  extending  from  the  coast  across  the  pampa. 
It  was  the  announcement  of  this  treaty  agreement 
that  caused  the  last  vigorous  protest  by  Peru  against 
Chile's  course  in  the  Tacna  and  Arica  question. 

During  the  administration  of  the  phlegmatic  but 
conscientious  Domingo  Santa  Maria,  who  was  presi- 
dent from  1881  to  1886,  Chile  passed  through  an 
important  epoch,  the  pivotal  point  in  her  national 
history.  It  includes  the  war  with  Peru  and  Bolivia, 
and  an  international  complication  with  the  Argen- 
tine Republic  in  which  war  was  averted  only  by  a 
diplomatic  handling  of  the  question. 

Argentina  had  an  unsigned  alliance  with  Peru  and 
Bolivia,  and  advantage  was  taken  of  Chile's  war  en- 
gagement to  press  the  question  of  boundary  limits, 
and  also  that  of  the  possession  of  Patagonia  and  the 
Straits  of  Magellan.  To  meet  this  emergency  and 
to  avoid  if  possible  another  war,  the  government 
commissioned  Jose  Manuel  Balmaceda,  who  was  then 
serving  as  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  to  go  to  the 


BRIEF  HISTORY  55 

Argentine  capital  and  save  Chile  from  impending 
difficulties.  Although  coldly  received  in  Buenos 
Aires,  Seiior  Balmaceda  entered  upon  the  task  with 
zeal  and  determination,  unraveled  the  tangle  of 
international  questions,  and  tied  the  hands  of  Ar- 
gentina by  withdrawing  Chile's  claim  to  that  portion 
of  Patagonia  lying  east  of  the  Cordilleras.  Previ- 
ous to  that  time  all  of  Patagonia  was  Chilean 
territor}^  It  was  included  in  the  Spanish  Vice- 
royalty  inherited  by  the  Republic.  This  concession 
precipitated  other  boundary  disputes  which  were  the 
cause  of  many  years  of  international  contention, 
almost  resulting  in  war  between  the  two  nations  on 
several  occasions.  It  was  finally  settled  by  arbitra- 
tion in  May,  1903,  when  a  boundary  line,  established 
by  a  commission  appointed  by  King  Edward  VII, 
was  accepted  and  approved  by  a  treaty  agreement 
between  the  two  countries. 

On  his  return  from  the  Argentine,  Balmaceda  was 
made  Prime  Minister  and  became  a  most  potent 
political  factor  and  powerful  incentive  to  material 
progress  and  development.  From  armed  conflicts 
and  international  complications  Chile  emerged  tri- 
umphant and  successful.  Her  territorial  limits  had 
been  extended  to  include  some  of  the  richest  mineral 
deposits  on  the  continent,  her  national  prestige 
greatly  increased,  her  credit  unimpaired  and  her 
wealth  producing  resources  multiplied. 

From  that  time  Chile  made  rapid  advancement 
along  lines  of  industrial  development  and  intel- 
lectual progress.  For  the  first  time  in  her  national 
existence  the  exports  exceeded  her  imports ;  the  bal- 
ance of  trade  was  favorable  to  her  commerce,  and 
the    surplus    in    the    national    treasury    reached 


56  PEOGRESSIVE  CHILE 

100,000,000  pesos.  A  remarkable  tiling  about  this 
surplus  is  that  it  was  accumulated  while  the  gov- 
ernment was  engaged  in  building  railroads,  bridges, 
public  schools  and  colleges,  penal  and  correctional 
institutions,  constructing  highways  and  providing 
better  means  of  communication  throughout  the 
country.  The  Congress  of  that  period,  1882-5,  was 
notable  in  the  history  of  the  Republic  for  its  pro- 
gressive policies,  unity  of  purpose  and  patriotic  sup- 
port of  the  government. 

The  administration  party,  led  by  Balmaceda, 
with  the  encouragement  of  President  Santa  Maria, 
was  marshaling  its  forces  for  some  radical  de- 
partures from  former  governmental  policies.  The 
president  issued  a  message  in  which  it  was  declared 
the  intention  of  the  administration  to  enact  a  law 
providing  for  the  civil  registry  of  births,  deaths  and 
marriages.  In  the  National  Congress,  September 
26,  1885,  Balmaceda,  representing  the  administra- 
tion, declared  the  following  to  be  the  government 
program : 

"Reciprocate  and  counterpoise  every  arm  of  public 
power;  sacredly  maintain  the  independence  of  constitu- 
tional and  judicial  powers;  protect  from  abuse  the  elect- 
oral power  and  liberty  of  suffrage ;  formally  reorganize 
municipalities  for  honest,  harmonious  legislation ;  separate 
the  church  from  the  state  and  protect  the  liberty  of 
thought;  foment  progressive  public  instruction,  examine 
proofs  of  character  and  competency  in  the  exercise  of  pub- 
lic functions;  realize  national  administration  in  the  most 
correct,  upright  and  economical  manner." 

Little  attention  was  given  to  these  patriotic  sen- 
timents at  the  time,  but  later  when  Balmaceda  be- 


BRIEF  HISTORY  57 

came  minister  of  the  interior,  lie  declared  in  con- 
gress that  "the  Catholic  religion  marches  contrary 
to  the  current  of  the  century,  restrains  the  liberty 
of  State,  refuses  modern  progress,  denies  freedom 
of  thought  and  destroys  liberal  ideas ;  the  church 
condemns  culture  and  fosters  ignorance.  With 
the  creed  of  Catholicism  it  is  difficult  to  unite  the 
politics  of  modem  State,  as  the  Catholic  religion  is 
an  exclusive  compulsory  factor  and  beneficiary  in 
Chilean  administrations." 

After  a  bitter  congressional  campaign,  in  which 
the  measure  was  opposed  by  the  church  element,  the 
civil  registry  act  became  a  law.  History  credits 
President  Santa  Maria  with  giving  his  country  this 
beneficent  law,  but  it  was  the  aggressive  Balmaceda 
who  led  the  fight  against  all  the  fortified  conserva- 
tive forces,  religious  and  traditional  prejudices  of 
Chile,  inculcating  into  the  minds  of  the  people  new 
and  advanced  ideas,  and  making  the  passage  of  the 
law  possible.  Inspired  by  patriotic  motives,  and 
with  excessive  confidence  in  others,  including  his 
enemies,  Balmaceda  committed  the  common  mistake 
of  politicians  in  believing  the  cause  he  advocated 
would  prevail  because  it  was  right.  The  war  with 
Peru  and  Bolivia  had  left  multiform  internal  and 
external  questions  for  settlement.  Wliile  these  in- 
ternational problems  were  pressing  for  solution, 
requiring  the  attention  of  the  administration,  the 
opposition  party  made  a  fierce  fight  in  the  elections 
of  1886,  securing  a  majority  in  the  Congress.  Then 
followed  the  greatest  political  struggle  in  the  his- 
tory of  Chile.  The  elements  opposing  the  civil 
registry  law,  and  other  political  measures  advanced 


58  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

by  the  administration,  employed  every  means  within 
their  power  to  arrest  the  liberal  advance,  which  had 
made  such  rapid  progress  in  the  few  years  imme- 
diately preceding,  to  embarrass  the  administration 
of  Santa  Maria  and  destroy  the  influence  of  Balma- 
ceda,  who  had  become  a  political  power  in  the  Re- 
public. 

ELECTION  OF  BALMACEDA. 

The  contending  forces  and  warring  political  ele- 
ments of  that  critical  period  in  Chile's  history 
reached  a  climax  in  the  struggle  for  supremacy  in 
the  campaign  of  1886,  which  resulted  in  the  election 
of  Balmaceda  as  president.  During  the  years  in- 
tervening between  the  war  with  Peru  and  Bolivia, 
and  the  inauguration  of  Balmaceda,  Chile  had  pros- 
pered wonderfully.  The  rich  nitrate  properties, 
acquired  as  the  fruits  of  war,  were  being  developed 
and  worked  with  foreign  capital,  and  were  produc- 
ing an  enormous  annual  revenue.  The  Republic  was 
then  in  the  period  of  its  greatest  jDrosperitj^,  having 
accumulated  a  large  surplus  in  the  national  treas- 
ury, notwithstanding  the  fact  that  public  works, 
including  highways,  school  houses,  bridges,  harbor 
improvements,  etc.,  were  being  constructed.  Order 
and  system  prevailed  in  the  management  of  govern- 
ment affairs,  and  the  country  was  in  the  bloom  of 
industrial  progress  and  national  prosperity. 

Under  these  favorable  conditions,  Don  Jose 
Manuel  Balmaceda  became  president.  To  the  crea- 
tion of  these  conditions  he  had  contributed  much  in 
the  way  of  honest  industry,  but  the  full  fruition  of 
his  hopes  to  make  of  Chile  an  independent  Republic, 
where  every  citizen,  irrespective  of  condition,  creed 


BRIEF  HISTORY  59 

or  religion,  might  exercise  his  rights  without  preju- 
dice to  his  individual  interests  was  never  to  be 
realized.  Not  only  was  he  destined  to  disappoint- 
ment and  ultimate  defeat,  but  this  strong,  brilliant 
man,  the  greatest  in  many  respects  that  Chile  has 
produced,  proved  the  rock  upon  which  the  Ship  of 
State  foundered.  His  administration  ended  in  a 
revolution,  the  tragic  end  of  which  was  the  death 
of  the  president  by  suicide  in  the  Argentine  Lega- 
tion, in  Santiago,  where  he  sought  asylum  after  the 
final  success  of  the  revolutionists  and  the  overthrow 
of  the  government. 

It  w^as  on  a  constitutional  question  that  Balma- 
ceda  clashed  with  Congress,  which  resulted  in  his 
downfall.     Under    the    constitution    the    president 
must  convoke  Congress  in  regular  session  from  June 
1  to  September  1,  each  year;  he  has  power  to  pro- 
rogue it  at  any  time  for  a  term  of  fifty  days,  and 
he  can  summon  it  in  special  session  whenever  he 
chooses.     He   appoints  his   cabinet  ministers,   gov- 
ernors of  provinces,  diplomatic  representatives,  and 
five  out  of  eleveri  members  of  the  Council  of  State, 
"Consejo     de     Estado."     He     also     appoints     the 
judges  of  the  several  courts,  upon  recommendation 
of  the  Council  of  State.     He  approves,  promulgates 
and  takes  part  in  the  making  of  laws,  issues  decrees, 
regulations,  etc.,  which  he  may  consider  desirable 
for  the  execution  of  laws.     The  authority  thus  vested 
in  the  president  gives  him  a  power  which,  if  abused, 
might  become  a  menace  to  the  Republic.     It  was 
perhaps  for  this  reason  that  the  framers  of  the  con- 
stitution of  Chile,  apparently  desiring  to  avoid  the 
possibility  of  the  concentration  of  political  power  in 
the  Republic,  made  the  ministry  responsible  to  the 


60  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

legislative  branch  of  the  government  instead  of  the 
executive.  Following  the  plan  of  the  French  Re- 
public, legislation  atTecting  the  general  policy  of  the 
government  originates  ^dth  the  ministry.  When 
Congress  convenes  the  president  outlines  the  ad- 
ministration policy  in  a  message  calling  attention 
to  such  measures  as  ho  thinks  should  receive  atten- 
tion and  consideration  from  the  legislative  bodies. 
Bills  are  prepared  by  the  cabinet  ministers  and  pre- 
sented to  Congress.  A  failure  to  approve  by  their 
votes  any  measure  coming  from  the  executive  branch 
is  taken  as  a  vote  of  lack  of  confidence  in  the  ad- 
ministration, and  the  onl}^  course  left  for  the  presi- 
dent is  to  dissolve  his  ministry.  The  power  be- 
stowed upon  Congress  to  overthrow  ministries,  and 
defy  the  president  by  refusing  to  cooperate  with  the 
executive  branch  of  government,  was  never  indulged 
in  to  any  considerable  extent  until  Balmaceda's 
time.  Then  the  political  elements  oj^posed  to  the 
administration  policy  allied  their  interests  and  exer- 
cised their  power  to  defeat  the  progressive  measures 
presented,  thereby  repeatedly  rejecting  the  minis- 
try. Since  that  time  the  custom  of  obstruction  has 
grown  into  such  a  gigantic  abuse  that  it  is  now  al- 
most impossible  for  the  president  of  Chile  to  main- 
tain a  ministry  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to 
carry  out  any  general  plan  or  policy  of  government. 
In  fact  it  has  become  one  of  the  crying  evils  of  the 
country  which  the  press  denounces  vigorously  and 
persistently.  During  the  administration  of  Presi- 
dent German  Riesco,  1901-6,  ministerial  changes  be- 
came so  frequent  that  a  cabinet  crisis  was  not  re- 
garded as  a  matter  of  any  interest  or  consequence 
by  the  public. 


BRIEF  HISTORY  61 

During  the  first  years  of  Balmaceda's  administra- 
tion, Chile  enjoyed  an  era  of  golden  prosperity  and 
national  progress.  Nnmeroiis  reforms  were  pro- 
posed, which  had  for  their  purpose  the  improvement 
of  the  government  service.  One  project  was  to  pro- 
hibit senators  and  deputies  from  having  an  inter- 
est in  any  public  contract ;  another  that  neither  the 
president  nor  any  cabinet  minister  should  appoint 
a  near  relative  to  office  unless  the  person  possessed 
the  necessary  qualifications  for  the  position.  Be- 
lieving himself  secure  in  the  performance  of  his 
duties  and  the  administration  of  government  affairs, 
President  Balmaceda  prepared  to  utilize  a  portion 
of  the  large  income  from  the  nitrate  fields  in  the 
construction  of  public  works.  He  contracted  for  the 
building  of  new  lines  of  railway  in  the  central  and 
southern  provinces  at  a  cost  of  $30,000,000;  built 
schools  and  colleges  in  every  city  in  the  Republic, 
amounting  to  $10,000,000  in  value ;  ordered  the  con- 
struction of  three  modern  warships  and  two  torpedo 
boats  in  Europe.  He  also  continued  and  completed 
the  work  of  constructing  a  government  dry  dock  at 
Talcahuano;  armed  and  equipped  the  araiy  with 
modern  rifles  and  munitions  of  war,  and  improved 
the  coast  defenses,  to  which  were  added  new  modem 
batteries  at  Talcahuano  and  Iquique. 

The  questions  affecting  the  prerogatives  of  the 
members  of  Congress  and  cabinet  ministers,  to- 
gether with  the  extravagant  policy  of  the  adminis- 
tration caused  much  political  agitation  and  exciting 
debate  in  the  Senate  and  House  of  Deputies.  The 
constant  attack  of  the  clerical  party,  the  bitter  denun- 
ciations of  the  press,  added  to  the  conservative  oppo- 
sition finally  created  dissension  among  the  liberals, 


62  PEOGRESSIVE  CHILE 

Tvho  had  elected  and  until  then  supported  the  presi- 
dent. Charges  of  usurpation  of  power  and  dictator- 
ship were  made  against  Balmaceda,  and  the  political 
situation  became  such  tliat  a  revolt  was  imminent. 
Various  ministries  had  been  rejected  by  Congress 
because  of  the  policy  pursued  in  erecting  costly 
public  works  instead  of  employing  the  government 
revenues  in  reducing  the  foreign  debt  and  redeeming 
the  paper  currency,  and  the  president  found  himself 
in  the  embarrassing  situation  of  having  entered 
upon  a  policy  of  extensive  government  improvement 
and  industrial  development  without  the  support  of 
Congress.  An  extraordinary  session  was  called  for 
the  purpose  of  providing  government  revenues. 
Other  measures  were  taken  up  by  Congress  and  the 
appropriation  bill  deferred  until  the  president 
should  recede  from  his  arbitrary  position.  Balma- 
ceda refused  to  compromise,  and  the  ministry  again 
resigned.  He  then  appointed  a  new  cabinet  in  har- 
mony with  his  views  and  declared  the  session  closed, 
maintaining  that  Congress  when  called  in  extraor- 
dinary session  for  the  express  purpose  of  passing  an 
appropriation  bill  had  no  constitutional  authority 
to  go  into  the  consideration  of  other  measures.  In 
explaining  his  action  he  said:  '' Congress  by  the  ex- 
press terms  of  the  constitution  has  no  more  right  to 
dictate  to  me  what  ministers  I  shall  appoint  than 
it  has  to  advise  what  food  I  shall  eat  or  clothes  I 
shall  wear." 

The  Constitutional  Advisory  Committee  was  con- 
vened and  as  a  result  of  its  deliberations  the  presi- 
dent was  advised  to  again  convene  Congress  in 
extraordinary  session.     Balmaceda  hesitated,  fear- 


BRIEF  HISTORY  63 

ing  that  Congress  if  again  convened  might  declare 
the  office  of  president  vacant.  While  he  and  his 
ministers  deliberated,  the  Constitutional  Committee 
arrogated  to  itself  the  authority  to  call  an  extra  ses- 
sion. The  opposition  was  rapidly  securing  support 
from  various  political  elements  throughout  tlie 
country  and  by  popular  sympathy  among  the  people. 
The  dictatorial  attitude  of  the  administration 
aroused  intense  feeling  and  there  was  a  clamor  for 
the  deposition  of  the  alleged  dictator.  Realizing 
that  summary  action  was  necessary  to  maintain 
his  power  and  aggressive  policy,  the  president 
issued  a  manifesto  on  January  1,  1891,  declaring  his 
intention  to  exercise  his  constitutional  powers  and 
functions, — to  stand  by  the  strict  letter  of  the  law. 
He  declared  that  he  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  etfete 
provisions  of  the  constitution,  nor  with  new  theories 
of  parliamentary  government  until  the}"  were  en- 
acted into  law.  He  maintained  that  under  the  con- 
stitution the  appropriation  bill  passed  by  the  previ- 
ous Congress  held  good  until  another  was  passed. 
The  supreme  court  declared  the  acts  of  the  presi- 
dent unconstitutional.  He  ignored  the  court.  This 
assumption  of  authority  on  the  part  of  the  execu- 
tive was  contrary  to  precedent  and  to  republican 
ideas,  even  if  constitutional,  and  the  cry  of  "dicta- 
tor" was  raised.  Thus  tlie  machinery  of  govern- 
ment was  disabled,  and  while  the  Ship  of  State  lay 
stranded  upon  the  rock  of  party  politics,  Congress 
declared  the  country  in  revolution,  and  the  tempest 
of  war  struck  the  Republic  on  January  7,  1891, 
when  the  navy,  under  command  of  Seiior  Don  Jorge 
Montt  went  over  to  the  revolutionists.     The  squad- 


64  PKOGEESSIVE  CHILE 

ron  sailed  for  the  north  with  the  presiding  officers 
of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Deputies  on  board,  and 
a  floating  Congress  was  established. 

The  Congress  which  declared  Balmaceda  deposed, 
empowered  Don  Jorge  Montt  to  assume  provisional 
command,  and  a  junta  was  organized  on  board  the 
warship  Blanco  Encalada,  composed  of  Senor  Montt, 
Don  AValdo  Silva,  vice-president  of  the  Senate  and 
Don  Eamon  Barros  Luco,  president  of  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies. 

The  revolution  started  by  Balmaceda 's  manifesto 
of  January  1,  1891,  was  apparently  poorly  prepared 
to  cope  with  the  government.  The  insurgents  had 
no  military  organization,  no  anus  or  munitions  of 
war.  The  junta  proceeded  north  and  took  posses- 
sion of  the  provinces  of  Tarapaca,  Atacama  and 
Antofagasta,  which  include  the  rich  nitrate  tields 
and  wealth  producing  mineral  territory  of  Chile, 
the  revenues  from  which  were  employed  in  purchas- 
ing arms,  provisions  and  equipment  for  an  army. 
They  also  had  possession  of  the  majority  of  the 
naval  squadron.  By  the  middle  of  the  year  1891 
the  government  had  45,000  troops  in  the  field,  four 
thousand  of  which  were  cavalry.  The  revolution- 
ists had  only  about  twelve  thousand  soldiers,  which 
encouraged  the  sanguine  Balmaceda  to  believe  that 
he  could  easily  suppress  the  uprising. 

Congressional  elections  were  held  in  May,  and  a 
majority  of  the  members  elected  were  in  sympathy 
with  the  administration.  In  June  presidential  elec- 
tors were  chosen,  and  they  selected  as  the  candidate 
for  president  Don  Claudio  Vicuna,  who  was  Balma- 
ceda's  choice  for  his  successor.  Senor  Vicuna,  who 
was  of  an  old  and  distinguished  family,  was  de- 


BRIEF  HISTORY  65 

clared  duly  elected  president  on  July  25,  1891,  but 
the  final  success  of  the  insurgents  prevented  him 
from  ever  takinc:  his  seat. 

As  the  struggle  continued  the  revolutionary  cause 
gained  strength  and  reinforcements  from  various 
sources.  The  superior  skill  of  the  military  officer 
directing  the  opposition  forces  made  itself  manifest, 
and  the  position  of  Balmaceda  and  his  government 
became  daily  more  and  more  menaced  with  dissolu- 
tion and  overthrow.  On  August  20,  ten  thousand 
revolutionary  troops  were  disembarked  at  Quintero, 
a  few  miles  from  Valparaiso,  and  on  the  following 
day  a  decisive  battle  was  fought,  at  Concon,  situ- 
ated at  the  mouth  of  the  Aconcagua  River,  resulting 
in  the  defeat  of  the  government  forces.  This  crush- 
ing defeat,  in  which  about  2,500  of  the  government 
troops  were  killed,  practically  caused  the  fall  of 
Balmaceda.  He  made  a  strenuous  and  brave  effort 
to  recover  from  the  disaster,  but  the  railway  com- 
munication having  been  destroyed,  it  was  impossible 
to  send  reserve  troops  from  the  south,  where  they 
had  been  stationed,  in  time  to  save  the  situation. 

After  the  battle  of  Concon  the  opposition  forces 
advanced  upon  Valparaiso,  and  two  days  later  en- 
deavored to  capture  Fort  Callao,  at  Vina  del  Mar, 
a  beautiful  suburban  place  six  miles  from  Valpa- 
raiso. The  fortress,  which  commands  the  bay  of 
Valparaiso,  tlie  valley  and  surrounding  heights, 
being  equipped  with  modern  guns,  and  well-nigh 
impregnable,  resisted  the  attack  of  both  warships 
and  artillery,  and  a  repulse  prevented  a  direct  ad- 
vance upon  Valparaiso,  the  objective  point  of  the 
Congressional  army.  Retiring  from  Vina  del  Mar, 
Generals  Canto  and  Korner,  commanding  the  revo- 


66  PKOGRESSIVE  CHILE 

Intionary  forces,  fell  back  to  Salto,  a  few  miles  dis- 
tant, where  they  destroyed  a  railway  bridge  span- 
ning the  river,  thus  cutting  off  communication  with 
Santiago,  and  preventing  the  possibility  of  Balma- 
ceda  forwarding  troops  from  the  capital.     Making 
a  detour   of  some  thirty  miles,   the   revolutionists 
endeavored  to  approach  Valparaiso  from  the  south, 
but  encountered  the  government  forces,  under  com- 
mand of  Generals  Barbosa  and  Alzerreca,  occupy- 
ing a  formidable  position  upon  the  hills  near  Pla- 
cilla,    a   few   miles    from   the   city   of   Valparaiso. 
This  was  on  Aug-ust  27th.     On  the  30th  the  election 
of  Seiior  Claudio  Vicuna  would  be  formally  ratified 
by  the  Senate,  and  he  would  become  president.    It 
was  important  to  the  revolutionists  to  force  a  de- 
cisive engagement  and  overthrow  Balmaceda  before 
the  newly  elected  president  should  take  his   seat. 
Before  daylight  on  the  morning  of  the  2cSth,  under 
cover  of  the  darkness  and  protection  of  the  hills, 
the  revolutionists  got  into  position  to  give  battle 
without    being    seen    by    the    government    forces. 
Early  in  the  morning  as  the  advancing  army  was 
crossing  an  open  plain  Balmaceda 's  troops  opened 
an  artillery  fire  upon  it,  and  the  battle  of  Placilla, 
the  final  and  decisive  engagement  in  the  revolution, 
was  begun.     The  opposition  forces  numbered  about 
twelve  thousand  and  the  government,  nine  thousand. 
The  former,  flushed  with  success  and  inspired  with 
the  hope  of  final  victory,  fought  like  demons,  while 
the  latter,  discouraged  and  disheartened  with  fail- 
ure, menaced  with  disaster  and  annihilation,  showed 
lack  of  order,  discipline,  and  courage  manifested  and 
displayed  on  previous  occasions.     Some  companies 
even  deserted  and  joined  the  enemy  during  the  bat- 


BRIEF  HISTORY  67 

tie.  After  a  few  hours'  terrific  fighting:,  in  which 
more  than  a  thousand  men  were  killed  and  a  greater 
number  wounded,  on  the  government  side,  the  Bal- 
maceda  army  was  put  to  rout.  The  victorious 
forces  which  had  lost  five  hundred  killed  and  over 
a  thousand  wounded,  pursued  the  fleeing  remnants 
of  the  routed  army,  driving  many  of  them  into  the 
quebrades  (ravines),  where  they  were  unmercifully 
slaughtered.  Generals  Barbosa  and  Alzerreca 
were  both  killed  in  the  engagement.  On  the  even- 
ing of  the  28th,  Valparaiso  was  in  possession  of  the 
revolutionists  and  the  Balmaceda  government  was 
overthrown. 

Leading  government  supporters,  including  Don 
Glaudio  Vicuna,  president  elect,  and  who  only 
lacked  a  few  days  of  being  formally  declared  the 
chief  executive  of  the  Republic,  sought  refuge  on 
board  foreign  warships  in  the  harbor. 

That  night  Valparaiso  was  the  scene  of  a  Bac- 
chanalian rabble  that  would  have  shamed  Rome  in 
the  reign  of  Nero.  The  city  was  in  possession  of 
a  mob,  intoxicated  with  success,  drunk  upon  wine 
and  athirst  for  blood,  that  murdered  with  impu- 
nity and  sacked  the  town  without  restraint. 
Drunken  men  and  women  reeled  through  the 
streets,  shooting  at  each  other  as  a  matter  of  sport, 
and  on  the  following  morning  four  hundred  victims 
of  the  mob's  violence  were  found  dead  in  the 
streets. 

The  scenes  enacted  in  Santiago  were  equally  as 
wild  and  tragic  as  those  witnessed  in  Valparaiso. 
The  houses  of  Balmaceda,  Claudio  Vicuna  and 
other  Balmacedistas  were  attacked,  looted  and 
everything    they    contained    destroyed    or    carried 


68  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

away.  A  statue  of  the  deposed  president  was  dis- 
membered and  kicked  tlirough  the  streets.  From 
balconies  ladies  cheered  the  performance,  while 
opprobrium  was  heaped  upon  the  inanimate  form 
by  the  drunken  mob.  Beggars  and  thieves  appro- 
priated with  impunity  works  of  art  and  beautiful 
articles  of  furniture  found  in  the  residences  of 
those  who  liad  remained  loyal  to  the  administra- 
tion. 

That  night  President  Balmaceda  left  the  Moneda 
(Grovernment  Palace),  and  sought  asylum  in  the 
Argentine  Legation,  where  he  remained  until  his 
legal  term  as  president  expired,  September  18. 
On  September  19  he  took  his  own  life  by  firing  a 
revolver-shot  into  his  brain,  thus  avoiding  the 
chronicle  in  history  that  he  committed  suicide  while 
president  of  the  Republic. 

Thus  the  tragic  and  untimely  death  of  this  strong, 
brave  man,  who  was  called  a  tyrant  and.  dictator  by 
his  enemies,  but  was  loved  and  revered  by  his 
friends.  Through  the  vista  of  vears  that  intervene 
between  the  present  and  the  close  of  the  revolution, 
the  official  acts  of  Balmaceda  and  the  monuments  he 
left  to  his  memory  in  the  form  of  government  works 
and  public  enterprises,  loom  large  and  conspicuous 
when  compared  with  the  works  of  those  who  have 
succeeded  hiin.  Public  opinion  and  sentiment  in 
Chile  have  undergone  wonderful  changes  since  the 
day  a  shot  from  a  revolver  in  his  own  hand  crashed 
into  and  stilled  forever  the  fertile,  creative  brain  of 
Jose  Manuel  Bahnaceda,  and  an  ungrateful  Repub- 
lic is  now  beginning  to  set  its  seal  of  approbation 
upon  his  official  life  and  private  character.  History 
will  yet  write  the  name  of  Bahnaceda  large  upon  the 


BRIEF  HISTORY  69 

roll  of  honor  reserved  for  Chile's  patriots,  states- 
men, diplomats  and  scholars. 

At  the  close  of  the  revolution  the  "Junta  de  Go- 
bierno,"  with  Captain  Jorge  Montt  at  its  head,  took 
charge  of  the  government.  On  October  18,  a  gen- 
eral election  was  held,  and  on  November  18  the 
electors  met  and  named  Don  Jorge  Montt  president. 
President  Montt,  while  a  man  of  mediocre  abilitv, 
possessed  a  high  sense  of  honor,  and  was  conscien- 
tious in  the  strict  performance  of  his  official  duties. 
While  he  did  nothing  to  distinguish  himself  as  a 
man  of  great  intellectual  attainments,  his  adminis- 
tration marked  a  period  of  national  tranquillity  and 
general  prosperity,  securing  for  him  the  good  will 
and  political  support  of  a  majority  of  the  citizens  of 
the  Republic.  After  serving  one  term  as  president 
he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  navy,  where  he 
served  as  a  most  efficient  and  popular  officer.  He 
held  the  position  as  ranking  admiral  of  the  navy 
until  1905,  when  he  was  sent  on  a  special  government 
mission  to  the  United  States,  Japan,  Europe  and 
England. 

President  Montt  was  succeeded  by  Don  Fedrico 
Errazuriz  in  1896.  There  was  little  in  President 
Errazuriz'  administration  worthy  of  special  men- 
tion. He  was  a  man  of  brilliant  intellect,  cultivated 
tastes,  charming  manner  and  attractive  personality, 
but  lacked  in  the  moral  qualities  that  characterized 
the  private  and  official  life  of  his  predecessor. 

President  Errazuriz  died  in  July,  1901,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Don  German  Riesco,  who  had  been  for- 
mally elected  a  month  previous.  President  Riesco 
had  not  been  conspicuous  in  national  politics  previ- 
ous to  Ms  nomination,  and  had  few  political  enemies 


70  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

wlien  inaugurated  iu  September,  1901.  He  was 
known  as  a  good  lawyer,  had  occupied  the  position 
of  judge  of  one  of  the  courts  of  appeal,  and  was 
universally  respected  for  his  honesty,  industry  and 
high  moral  character.  Being  a  man  of  mediocre 
ability,  lacking  in  precision  and  firmness,  his  admin- 
istration was  early  embarrassed  by  politicians  who 
employed  obstructive  measures  to  prevent  the  pas- 
sage of  laws  recommended  by  the  executive  branch 
of  the  government. 

The  president  found  it  difficult  to  maintain  a  min- 
istry for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  accomplish 
anything  in  the  way  of  needed  legislation,  or  to 
carry  out  important  government  policies.  He  was 
constantly  forced  into  compromising  with  various 
political  factions  and  coalitions.  In  an  effort  to  se- 
cure political  influence  he  lost  the  support  of  a  ma- 
jority of  the  members  of  the  legislative  bodies,  and 
also  the  confidence  of  the  people.  The  result  was  a 
condition  of  political  chaos  in  the  Republic.  Minis- 
tries were  overthrown  with  frequency.  Congress  was 
hopelessly  divided  into  contending  factions  and 
there  was  a  general  lack  of  united  and  concerted 
effort  in  the  various  branches  of  government. 

Chile  made  substantial  commercial  progress  dur- 
ing the  Riesco  administration,  however,  and  there 
prevailed  throughout  the  country  a  condition  of 
general  prosperity.  New  and  important  industries 
were  established,  many  new  companies  with  large 
capital  were  organized,  and  money  was  plentiful 
during  most  of  the  period.  The  only  disturbing  fea- 
ture of  the  commercial  and  financial  situation  was 
the  constantly  fluctuating  value  of  the  paper  cur- 
rencv. 


BRIEF  HISTORY  71 

Another  feature  of  President  Riesco's  admin- 
istration is  the  fact  that  it  closed  with  a  national 
calamity,  caused  by  the  great  earthquake  that  oc- 
curred in  August,  1906,  causing  serious  loss  of  life 
and  great  destruction  of  property  in  the  cities  and 
towns  throughout  the  country. 

In  the  general  election  of  1906,  Don  Pedro  Montt, 
son  of  Manuel  Montt,  President  of  Chile  from  18.51 
to  1861,  was  elected  president  by  a  larger  majority 
than  that  received  by  any  candidate  in  the  history 
of  the  Republic. 

Seiior  Montt  was  for  many  years  previous  to  his 
election  regarded  as  the  most  able  and  conservative 
statesman  in  the  country.  He  was  born  in  San- 
tiago in  1846,  and  was  graduated  from  the  Uni- 
versity in  his  native  city  in  1870.  In  1874  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  House  of  Deputies,  where 
he  remained  for  several  years.  He  also  served  as 
Speaker  of  the  House,  Minister  in  different  cabi- 
nets and  Envoy  Extraordinary  and  Minister  Pleni- 
potentiary to  the  United  States.  With  a  long  and 
successful  political  career  to  his  credit  he  was  in- 
augurated under  more  favorable  and  auspicious 
circumstances  than  any  president  since  his  father, 
to  whom  history  gives  the  credit  of  being  one  of  the 
ablest  executives  ever  elected  to  the  office. 

It  was  President  Montt 's  ambition  to  improve 
the  industrial  and  financial  conditions  of  the  coun- 
try by  establishing  the  gold  standard,  and  thereby 
do  away  with  the  ruinous  fluctuations  in  the  cur- 
rency values.  But  in  this  commendable  undertak- 
ing he  was  doomed  to  disappointment,  being  de- 
feated in  his  plans  for  accomplishing  that  most  de- 
sirable reform  by  the  factions  that  dominated  the 


72  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

politics  of  the  Republic,  and  in  1908-9,  the  exchange 
rate  reached  its  lowest  level,  the  Chilean  peso  be- 
ing worth  at  one  time  only  20  cents  U.  S.  currency, 
whereas  upon  a  gold  standard  basis  it  represents  a 
value  of  34  cents. 

In  Mav  1910  President  Montt  attended  the  inau- 
guration  of  the  centennial  exposition  of  the  Argen- 
tine Republic  in  Buenos  Aires,  making  the  trip  by 
rail  over  the  Transandine  Railway,  which  was 
opened  to  traffic  about  that  time.  In  July  he  started 
on  a  trip  to  Europe,  going  by  way  of  the  United 
States,  arriving  in  New  York,  August  3.  On  Au- 
gust 9  he  sailed  for  Europe,  arriving  in  Hamburg 
on  the  16th,  where  he  died  soon  after  his  arrival. 

After  the  death  of  President  Montt,  Vice-Presi- 
dent Elias  Fernandez  Albano  became  president. 
On  September  6,  of  the  same  year  President  Albano 
died  and  Senator  Maclver  Como,  vice-president  of 
the  Council  of  State  became  the  acting  president. 

At  the  regular  election  in  1910,  Don  Raymon  Bar- 
ros  Luco  was  elected  to  the  presidency. 


INDIANS 

TILE  indigenous  races  of  Chile  consist  of  tlie  fol- 
lowing tribes:  Araucanians,  Chilotes,  Clionos, 
Onas,  Pueginos,  Yahgans,  Alacalupes  and  Patagoni- 
ans. 

The  Araucanians,  the  most  powerful,  brave,  and 
warlike  tribe  of  South  American  Indians,  formerly 
occupied  all  the  territory  now  constituting  the 
northern  half  of  Chile.  In  the  Araucanians  the 
Spaniards  met  a  strong  resistance  to  their  invasion 
of  the  territory.  The  tribe  then  numbered  one  mil- 
lion, and  for  three  hundred  and  fifty  years  they 
maintained  a  warfare  against  the  occupation  of 
their  country  by  white  men.  The  Spaniards  were 
unable  to  subdue  them,  and  even  after  the  war  of 
independence  and  the  establishment  of  the  Repub- 
lic, they  maintained  a  hostile  attitude.  Although  be- 
ing- gradually  and  peacefully  subjugated  they  still 
maintain  a  sort  of  independence,  living  under  a  form 
of  government  agreeable  to  their  common  tribal 
laws  and  customs.  They  are  now  generally  en- 
gaged in  the  peaceful  pursuits  of  agriculture. 

The  Araucanian  government  consists  of  a  con- 
federation constituted  by  the  union  of  three  inde- 
pendent tribes,  each  of  which  is  governed  by  a 
hereditary  chief,  called  Toqui,  or  Cacique.  A  few 
years  ago  the  territory  was  divided  into  sub- 
districts,  for  each  of  which  there  is  a  subordinate 
chief.     The  Caciques  are  elected  by  their  respective 

73 


74  PEOGRESSIVE  CHILE 

tribes.  They  hold  armed  diets,  like  the  ancient 
Poles  and  Germans.  In  the  formation  of  laws  gov- 
erning their  actions,  and  determining  upon  military 
operations,  every  member  of  the  confederation  has 
a  vote. 

In  more  recent  years  these  erstwhile  savages 
have  manifested  a  friendly  disposition  towards  for- 
eigners, some  of  whom  have  been  admitted  to  mem- 
bership in  their  tribes.  These  "white  Indians," 
who  usually  possess  superior  intelligence,  education 
and  knowledge  of  the  world,  sometimes  rise  to  emi- 
nence among  the  tribes.  A  French  lawyer  named 
De  Tonneins,  once  humbugged  the  Indians  into  be- 
lieving in  his  alleged  magical  and  spiritual  attain- 
ments to  such  an  extent  that  the  Araucanian  tribes 
proclaimed  him  king,  which  distinction  he  assumed! 
under  the  title  of  King  Orelie  Antonio  I,  and 
reigiied  for  several  years.  The  small  court  by 
which  he  was  surrounded  paid  him  great  deference. 
His  Fraudulent  Highness  made  war  against  the 
Chilean  government,  was  captured  and  deported  to 
his  native  country,  where  after  several  uneventful 
years,  he  died  in  an  asylum  in  Bordeaux. 

The  Araucanians  are  a  sturdy  race,  with  fine 
physiques.  They  are  tall,  muscular,  agile  and  pos- 
sess wonderful  power  of  endurance.  They  are 
brave  to  fooTliardiness,  but  lack  intelligence,  ambi- 
tion and  creative  genius.  Their  stupidity  combined 
with  their  passions,  cruel  natures  and  natural  char- 
acteristics have  prevented  them  from  rising  little 
above  the  low  level  of  animals  in  their  domestic  life. 
A  study  of  their  past  history  and  present  conditions 
has  a  tendency  to  disillusionize  one  who  has  formed 
ideas  of  the  Araucanians  from  descriptions  written 


INDIANS  75 

by  historians  and  tales  related  by  travelers  who 
have  never  visited  the  habitations  of  that  peculiar 
people.  In  general  appearance  the  Araucanians  re- 
semble the  other  indigenous  tribes  of  North  and 
South  America.  They  are  copper  colored,  have 
black,  straight,  coarse  hair  and  deep  set,  piercing 
black  eyes.  There  is  a  trace  of  foreign  blood  appar- 
ent in  many  of  them,  due  to  their  association  with 
the  Spaniards  who  first  invaded  the  country,  and 
shipwrecked  sailors,  many  of  whom  cast  their  lots 
with  the  Indians,  and  lived  peacefully  among  them, 
frequently  marrying  Indian  women. 

When  America  was  discovered,  the  indigenous 
tribes  wore  little  clothing,  but  contact  with  white 
men  has  wrought  some  changes  in  their  customs 
and  habits,  and  taught  them  the  propriety  of  wear- 
ing at  least  a  semi-civilized  garb.  The  costume  of 
the  Araucanian  consists  of  a  shirt,  a  loin  cloth,  a 
manta  or  poncho  of  dark  blue  or  black  fabric,  and  a 
scarlet  turban,  all  woven  by  hand  and  from  natural 
wool,  and  colored  from  dyes  extracted  from  the 
roots  of  plants  and  bark  of  trees.  The  women  wear 
long,  scarlet  petticoats,  and  over  the  head  a  blue 
manta,  which  drapes  over  the  body  down  to  and 
below  the  waist.  Their  costumes  are  also  made  of 
hand-woven  wool  cloth,  which  is  soft  and  warm,  and 
very  durable.  A  unique  feature  of  the  cloth  made 
by  the  Indians  is  the  variety  and  j)eculiarity  of 
colors  woven  into  the  fabric.  The  designs  are  odd 
and  quaint,  and  not  infrequently  weird  figures  rep- 
resenting animals,  serpents  and  imaginary  gods  and 
devils  are  worked  into  the  patterns.  A  peculiar  fea- 
ture of  the  fabric  is  that  the  designs  are  never  dupli- 
cated, no  two  pieces  of  cloth  being  made  of  the  same 


76  PEOGRESSIVE  CHILE 

pattern.  Hence,  if  one  buys  an  Indian  ponelio,  ho 
lias  the  satisfaction  of  knowing  that  no  one  else  will 
have  one  like  it  in  design.  The  mantas  worn  by  the 
men  and  women  are  in  plain  colors,  as  a  rule,  but 
they  are  unique  garments,  the  feature  of  which  is  a 
long  nap  on  the  outer  side  of  the  fal)ric,  which 
makes  it  almost  impervious  to  water.  These  man- 
tas are  usually  fastened  with  a  huge  silver  pin, 
ornamented  with  a  round,  flat  disk.  Both  men  and 
women  wear  silver  earrings  of  huge  proportions, 
verj^  heavy  and  of  varied  and  odd  design.  The 
women  wear  various  other  silver  ornaments  in  the 
form  of  necklaces,  bangles,  crosses  and  pendants. 
These  articles  are  all  made  of  hammered  silver  and 
have  an  intrinsic  as  well  as  a  decorative  value.  The 
usual  aversion  of  Indians  in  general  to  familiarity, 
or  to  become  communicative,  the  traditional  sto- 
lidity of  the  race,  holds  good  wdth  the  Araucani- 
ans.  They  are  averse  to  selling  any  of  their  per- 
sonal apparel  or  adornments,  and  all  efforts  to  pur- 
chase such  articles  are  resented. 

These  people,  constituting  the  remnant  of  a  once 
powerful  and  proud  race,  live  in  miserable  huts,  the 
roofs  of  which  provide  little  protection  against  rain, 
and  the  walls  of  which  are  sometimes  conspicuous 
by  their  absence.  In  a  climate  where  it  rains  one 
half  the  year,  and  where  the  tem]ierature  frequently 
drops  to  zero,  these  places  of  habitation  afford  little 
comfort.  In  these  miserable  "rucas"  live  the 
family,  not  infrequently  consisting  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  children,  together  with  donkeys,  pigs,  dogs 
and  fowls,  in  sanitary  conditions  that  are  shockingly 
disgusting. 

In  the  Araucanian  country,  which  extends  from 


INDIANS  77 

the  River  Bio  Bio  on  the  north  to  Vahlivia  on  the 
south,  and  from  the  Cordillera  to  the  sea,  some 
strange  sights  may  he  witnessed.  Almost  the  en- 
tire country  is  covered  with  forests,  and  there  are 
hundreds  of  miles  of  solitude  and  unbroken  wilder- 
ness, save  the  little  cultivated  patches,  where  the  In- 
dians engage  in  farming.  Their  farms  and  ranches 
are  usually  back  from,  rather  than  along  the  trails 
where  travelers  pass.  There  is  little  bird  or  animal 
life  in  the  forests,  and  one  may  ride  for  days 
through  those  solitudes,  with  little  or  nothing  to 
attract  attention  or  relieve  the  oppressive  silence 
and  monotony,  save  the  sight  of  an  occasional  In- 
dian. The  strange,  mysterious  manner  of  the  In- 
dians only  adds  to  the  uncanny  aspect  of  the  wilder- 
ness. They  are  mysterious,  and  undesiral)le  as 
companions,  ignorant,  superstitious,  and  by  nature 
vicious,  but  like  animals,  they  are  dangerous  only 
when  disturbed  in  the  pursuit  of  life. 

The  deeds  of  heroism,  acts  of  valor  and  bravery, 
which  caused  the  Araucanians  to  be  immortalized 
in  verse  and  recorded  in  the  more  sober  lines  of 
prose  and  history,  were  enacted  during  the  days  of 
the  Spanish  conquest. 

In  1535,  Don  Diego  de  Almagro,  the  ally  and  rival 
of  Pizarro,  the  despoiler  of  Peru,  set  out  on  a  mis- 
sion of  conquest  of  the  territory  which  now  consti- 
tutes the  Eepublic  of  Chile.  He  came  not  as  a 
peaceful  conqueror,  as  did  the  Incas  long  before,  but 
as  a  tyrant  and  butcher,  endeavoring  to  strike  terror 
to  the  hearts  of  the  Indians  by  acts  of  cruelty  and 
inhuman  treatment.  They  were  treated  as  so  many 
beasts  to  be  enslaved  or  slaughtered  at  the  pleasure 
of  those  who  invaded  the  country  in  quest  of  gold, 


78  PEOGRESSIVE  CHILE 

only.  Tlio  attitude  of  Almagro  and  his  followers 
aroused  all  the  latent  fierce  comhative  spirit  and  re- 
sentful feelings  that  had  heen  smoldering  in  the 
liearts  of  the  aborigines  during  centuries  of  peaceful 
occupation  of  the  country,  and  they  resisted  the  in- 
vasion with  a  heroism  and  determination  that  finds 
few  parallels  in  primitive  warfare  in  the  history  of 
the  world. 

There  were  then  no  horses  in  the  country,  save 
those  brought  by  the  Spaniards,  and  the  Indians 
had  to  fight  on  foot.  The  only  weapons  they  pos- 
sessed were  bows  and  arrows,  and  lances  made  of 
long,  flexible  bamboo  poles,  the  latter  being  the 
weapons  of  war,  Thej''  had  no  military  training  or 
leaders  and  were  ignorant  of  the  arts  of  war,  not 
even  appreciating  or  understanding  the  advantages 
of  combined  or  orderly  attack.  They  depended  en- 
tirely upon  impetuous  charges,  ambush  and  secret 
night  attacks.  The}^  had  no  fear  of  death,  and  not 
infrequently  in  battle  they  continued  the  conflict  un- 
til every  man  engaged  was  killed.  After  years  of 
warfare  against  the  Spaniards,  they  learned  the 
advantages  to  be  gained  by  the  use  of  horses  in 
battle,  which  they  adopted  to  some  extent,  but  they 
did  not  follow  the  example  of  their  enemies  in  the 
use  of  saddles,  always  riding  bareback.  After  many 
generations  of  resistance  to  the  invaders,  they  be- 
came more  clever  and  systematic  in  attack  and  de- 
fense, having  learned  the  importance  of  better 
preparation,  councils  of  war  and  leadership.  The 
Araucanian  war  extended  intermittently  over  three 
centuries,  and  as  the  case  in  all  wars,  whether 
among  barbarians  or  civilized  nations,  brought  con- 


or 


INDIANS  79 

spicnously  to  the  front  individuals  who  by  superior 
intelligence  and  bravery  were  recognized  as  natural 
leaders.  Chief  among  those  who  achieved  fame  as 
warriors,  and  whose  deeds  of  daring  form  thrilling 
chapters  in  Chilean  history,  were  Lautaro,  a  young 
brave  who  at  the  age  of  twenty  was  recognized  as 
the  leader  of  the  Indian  forces.  It  was  Lautaro  who 
first  attempted  to  organize  the  various  tribes  and 
bands  into  something  like  a  military  force.  After 
many  successful  battles  he  was  surprised  in  a  night 
attack  by  the  Spaniards,  near  Talca,  where  almost 
the  entire  army  under  his  command  was  annihilated, 
he  being  among  the  killed.  He  was  decapitated, 
and  his  head  taken  to  Santiago,  where  it  was  placed 
npon  a  pole  and  paraded  through  the  streets  as  a 
victorious  trophy. 

Later  Caupolican,  one  of  the  bravest  of  his  race, 
assumed  the  leadership  of  the  Araucanians.  He 
was  finally  captured,  and  his  enemies  wishing  to 
make  an  example  of  the  chief  cut  off  both  his  arms 
at  the  elbows,  after  which  he  was  released.  Cau- 
polican pointing  the  stumps  of  his  amputated  arms 
at  his  persecutors  said:  ''Be  careful,  be  careful, 
murderers  and  persecutors,  I  will  return  to  avenge 
these  wrongs."  And  notwithstanding  his  maimed 
condition  he  later  returned  to  the  attack  with  re- 
newed courage  and  fierceness,  and  in  many  battles, 
Caupolican  was  first  in  the  fray,  and  when  beaten, 
was  the  last  to  retire  from  the  field. 

Since  the  days  of  the  conquest  of  Chile,  the  Arau- 
canian  Indians  have  been  hedged  about  and  en- 
croached upon  with  modern  civilizing  influences. 
Under  these  conditions  they  have  degenerated  until 


80  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

their  greatness  is  only  a  memory.  They  now  have 
fixed  places  of  residence,  and  live  upon  the  proceeds 
of  their  labor  or  lands. 

Some  of  these  Indians  own  large  tracts  of  land, 
portions  of  which  they  cultivate,  and  upon  which 
they  raise  large  numbers  of  cattle  and  horses.  The 
methods  employed  in  farming  are  crude  and  primi- 
tive. The  rich  landowners  are  personages  of  note 
in  the  section  of  country  where  they  live.  And  when 
one  of  them  starts  on  a  trip  from  his  ranch,  always 
on  horseback,  he  is  adorned  with  much  silver  in  the 
way  of  ornaments.  Pie  is  usually  accompanied  by 
five  or  six  ^'mocetones"  (servants),  and  travels  in 
grand  style. 

Having  few  wants  these  Indians  work  only  when 
it  is  necessary  to  supply  their  needs.  Missionaries 
have  tried  in  recent  years  to  improve  their  moral 
condition,  but  have  made  little  progress.  The 
Araucanian  ideas  of  a  serious  life  are  not  deep- 
rooted;  there  is  more  stubbornness  than  intellect  in 
their  composition.  The  Incas  who  were  the  first 
foreign  nation  to  invade  Chile,  taught  them  to  wor- 
ship the  sun,  but  in  their  present  degenerate  condi- 
tion they  seem  to  worship  only  the  God  Bacchus. 
Strong  drink  and  its  attendant  abuses,  the  curse  of 
all  barbarous  races,  when  once  introduced  by  civi- 
lized nations,  is  causing  degeneration  and  a  de- 
crease in  numbers.  It  will  no  doubt  continue  to  aid 
materially  in  the  consummation  of  their  final  ex- 
tinction. 

In  1800,  during  the  administration  of  President 
Balmaceda,  rail  and  wagon  roads  were  built  through 
the  Araucanian  country,  and  many  towns,  popu- 
lated by  Chilenos  and  foreigners  sprung  up  along 


INDIANS  81 

these  routes  of  communication.  Special  European 
immigration  was  solicited  and  encouraged  by  gov- 
ernment aid,  for  the  settlement  of  portions  of 
the  territory.  Foreign  association  and  influence, 
changed  conditions  and  environments  affected  radi- 
cal  changes  in  the  character,  customs,  habits  and 
beliefs  of  the  Indians.  They  were  brought  face  to 
face  with  the  on-marching  hosts  of  civilization,  and 
confronted  with  the  problem  of  accepting  and  adapt- 
ing themselves  to  the  new  order  of  things,  or  ex- 
tinction.    The  ultimate  result  will  be  the  latter. 

With  the  indigenous  races  of  Chile,  and  the  same 
is  true  of  other  countries,  vices  tread  fast  upon  the 
heels  of  civilization.  With  the  influx  of  peaceful 
neighbors,  the  martial  valor  of  these  warlike  Indians 
seems  to  have  disappeared.  They  have  acquired  a 
passion  for  the  cheap  brands  of  liquor  introduced  by 
foreigners,  and  in  the  indulgence  of  their  appetites 
for  strong  drink  they  have  become  indolent,  and  are 
neglecting  their  farms  and  ranches.  Many  of  them 
have  turned  their  lands  over  to  the  colonists,  to 
work  on  shares,  and  are  thus  enabled  to  lead  lives 
of  indolence  and  excessive  indulgence.  The  raw 
liquor  which  they  drink  is  called  "Blanco  Toro" 
(white  bull);  the  vile  tobacco  they  smoke  is 
'^peclen,"  and  their  pipes  are  called  *'guitas." 
They  still  consume  large  quantities  of  the  ancient 
Indian  drink,  ''chicha  mascada,"  which  is  made  from 
corn  that  is  first  chewed  by  old  women,  and  then  put 
through  a  process  of  fermentation.  A  drink  is  made 
from  flaxseed  by  the  same  process.  They  are  de- 
termined and  inveterate  gamblers,  their  favorite 
game  being  cards,  "cayo."  The  game  they  play  is 
peculiar    to    the    tribe,    and    is    called    "achaco." 


82  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

Among  the  traditional  customs  to  wliicli  they  cling 
tenaciously  are  their  Indian  dances,  ''loncomeos," 
wliich  are  indulged  in  to  the  music  of  an  instrument 
called  "cuntum."  This  instrument  is  odd  in  design 
and  peculiar  in  tone,  being  a  sort  of  combination 
banjo  and  tambourine. 

The  Araucanians  are  as  improvident  as  they  are 
dishonest,  and  as  proud  as  they  are  laz3\  Yet  there 
is  little  extreme  poverty  and  there  are  no  beggars 
among  tliem.  Until  recent  years  they  were  strict 
vegetarians,  and  still  abstain  from  eating  the  flesh 
of  cattle,  but  they  have  become  so  far  civilized  as 
to  develop  a  fondness  for  horse  meat.  An  Indiaii 
will  willingly  exchange  a  cow  or  bullock,  regardless 
of  value,  for  a  horse,  if  the  equine  is  sufficiently  fat 
to  make  it  desirable  for  food.  Although  many  of 
them  are  skilled  in  the  use  of  firearms,  which  have 
been  generally  introduced  in  recent  years,  they  still 
manifest  a  fondness  and  preference  for  their  bam- 
boo lances,  the  weapon  of  war  used  by  their  ances- 
tors. They  frequently  indulge  in  personal  encoun- 
ters, but  always  without  weapons.  These  fights  are 
questions  of  force  and  endurance,  science  being  left 
out  of  the  contest,  and  the  belligerent  methods  em- 
})loyed  are  not  sufficiently  violent  to  result  in 
death.  The  combatants  clutch  each  other  by  the 
hair  of  the  head  and  indialge  in  a  game  of  puU-and- 
haul,  the  performance  being  accompanied  usually 
with  a  volley  of  wrathful  words  uttered  in  a  high 
shrill  voice.  Unlike  the  North  American  Indians 
they  seldom  resort  to  the  use  of  a  knife  as  a  weapon 
of  offense  or  defense. 

The  system  of  counting  is  strictly  decimal — from 
one  to  ten.     Twenty  is  two  tens,  fifty,  five  tens,  and 


INDIANS  83 

one  hundred  is  ten  tens ;  two  hundred  is  two  tens  of 
ten,  etc. 

In  case  of  sickness  the  ''machi"  (doctor)  is 
called.  That  functionary  passes  his  mouth  over  the 
entire  body  of  the  patient,  pinching  the  flesh  with 
his  lips  to  ascertain  the  location  of  the  affliction. 
When  that  portion  is  reached  where  the  disease  is 
supposed  to  be  located,  an  incision  is  made,  from 
which  the  "machi"  sucks  the  blood  with  his  mouth. 
Very  few  medicines  are  employed,  the  chief  medi- 
cinal remedy  used  being  the  leaf  of  the  canelo  (wild 
cinnamon)  tree,  which  is  considered  a  cure  for  al- 
most every  ill. 

The  treatment  of  the  body  after  death,  previous 
to  burial,  is  one  of  the  queer  and  barbarous  customs 
prevalent  among  the  Araucanians.  The  body  is 
hung  up  in  a  building,  usually  the  house  in  which  the 
person  dies,  and  a  slow  wood  fire  built  under  the 
corpse.  This  process  of  smoking  is  kept  up  for 
several  weeks.  When  the  antiseptic  principle  of  the 
creosote  has  completely  cured  the  flesh,  the  body  is 
taken  down,  and  is  considered  ready  for  burial.  A 
rope  is  then  attached  to  the  corpse,  and  a  yoke  of 
oxen  employed  to  drag  the  body  to  the  place  of 
burial.  This  grewsome  procession  is  preceded  by  a 
number  of  men  armed  with  lances,  who  march  in 
advance  in  order  to  drive  away  any  enemies  or  evil 
spirits,  that  they  may  not  be  buried  with  the  dead 
to  disturb  their  future. 

CHILOTES    AND   CHONOS. 

The  Chilote  Indians  inhabit  the  Island  of  Chiloe, 
and  a  portion  of  the  coast  country  in  the  province 
of  Llanquihue,  in  which  territory  they  constitute  the 


84  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

working-  population.  They  are  a  light  copper  color, 
and  differ  materially  in  physical  appearance  from 
the  Araucanians.  They  are  short  in  stature,  heavy- 
set,  broad,  square  shoulders,  thick  necks,  large 
heads,  hands  and  feet.  They  have  no  chiefs  or 
tribal  government,  being  peculiarly  unrestrained  in 
their  personal  lives  by  traditional  laws  or  govern- 
ment. They  are  peaceful  and  industrious.  Each 
person  i)ursues  such  occupation  as  he  may  find  or 
desire,  that  will  afford  a  living,  without  regard  to 
the  wishes  or  requirements  of  others.  The  chief 
occupation  of  this  small  tribe  in  recent  years  is  the 
manufacture  of  a  rough  grade  of  lumber  and  tim- 
bers from  a  species  of  red  pine,  called  alerce.  This 
wood  has  a  beautiful  straight  grain,  and  the  boards 
are  made  by  riving,  instead  of  sawing.  This  rough 
lumber  is  transported  long  distances  upon  the  heads 
of  the  Indians,  to  the  coast  and  interior  towns,  where 
the  product  is  exchanged  for  articles  of  food  and 
clothing. 

The  Chouo  Indians,  inhabiting  the  archipelagoes 
of  Guitecas  and  Chonos,  are  few  in  numbers  and  live 
in  a  barbarous  state.  They  live  in  caves  and  small 
brush  huts,  and  subsist  entirely  upon  fish,  which 
thej^  procure  along  the  island  coast.  The  Chonos 
are  small  in  stature,  repulsive  in  appearance,  and 
in  intelligence,  and  their  manner  of  living  ranks 
little  above  animals, 

FUEGUINOS    OR    CANOE   INDIANS. 

The  archipelago  of  Tierra  del  Fueg'o,  which  con- 
sists of  the  large  island  of  the  same  name,  and  nu- 
merous smaller  islands,  many  of  which  are  rocky, 
ice-bound  and  forbidding  in  aspect,  constitutes  the 


INDIANS  85 

extreme  southern  territorial  limits  of  the  continent, 
and  is  separated  from  the  mainland  by  the  Strait  of 
Magellan.  The  aborigines  of  this  far  southern  ter- 
ritory are  divided  into  three  tribes, — the  Onas, 
Yahgans  and  the  Alacalupes.  It  is  among  these 
tribes,  inhabiting  a  wild  and  forbidding  country,  un- 
disturbed by  the  march  of  progress  and  civilization, 
that  one  may  tind  the  indigenous  races  living  under 
the  same  conditions  and  maintaining  the  traditions 
and  customs  that  prevailed  before  the  coming  of 
the  white  man  to  the  western  world. 

ONAS. 

The  Onas  are  physically  a  fine  race  of  people,  the 
average  height  of  the  men  being  a  little  over  six 
feet;  the  women  are  also  tall  and  muscular.  They 
have  no  system  of  tribal  government,  and  are  noma- 
dic. Their  only  occupation  is  hunting  the  guan- 
aco,  a  fur-coated  herbivorous  animal  found  in  great 
numbers  in  the  lower  ranges  of  the  Andes  Moun- 
tains in  the  south.  The  meat  of  the  giianaco  con- 
stitutes the  chief  food  supply  of  the  Onas,  and  many 
of  them  subsist  upon  it  entirely.  The  sldns  of  the 
animals  are  made  into  a  sort  of  manta,  which  con- 
stitutes the  only  costume  worn  by  the  men.  They 
discard  this  costume  when  at  war,  or  in  pursuit  of 
the  guanaco.  The  women  wear  only  a  small  piece 
of  guanaco  skin  about  their  loins.  The  Onas  live 
in  families,  one  man  usually  possessing  several 
women.  There  is  little  regard  for  marriage  rites  or 
usage,  the  more  powerful  and  valiant  of  the  men  se- 
lecting such  women  from  the  tribe  as  they  may  de- 
sire, and  are  able  to  maintain  against  their  rivals. 

Their  only  weapons  are  bows  and  arrows,  slings 


86  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

and  harpoons,  the  hitter  being  pointed  witli  barbed 
bone  spikes.  The  number  of  Onas  is  now  estimated 
at  three  thousand  five  hundred,  but  like  the  other 
tribes  in  Chile  they  are  decreasing. 

YAHGANS. 

The  coast  of  the  Beagle  Channel  and  all  the  archi- 
pelago south  of  Tierra  del  Puego  to  Cape  Horn  is 
inhabited  by  the  Yahgan  Indians.  The}^  have  no 
chiefs  nor  tribal  laws  and  are  perhaps  the  lowest 
grade  of  Imman  beings,  in  point  of  intelligence,  and 
in  the  manner  and  customs  of  living,  existing  on 
the  American  continent.  They  are  dwarfed  in 
stature,  have  very  dark  skins  and  are  repulsive  in 
appearance.  A  peculiar  feature  of  the  Yahgans  is 
the  extraordinary  projection  of  their  front  teeth, 
which  are  used  for  opening  the  shells  of  oysters  and 
mollusks.  These  bivalves  and  Crustacea,  their  sole 
article  of  food,  are  eaten  raw. 

The  Yahgans,  like  their  neighbors,  the  Alacalupes 
of  the  western  channels  of  Patagonia  and  Tierra  del 
Fuego,  live  almost  constantly  in  their  canoes,  their 
only  means  of  transportation.  For  their  fishing  ex- 
peditions they  rarely  pass  the  night  on  shore,  travel- 
ing long  distances  in  their  frail  barques.  Consid- 
ering the  turbulent  waters  in  the  channels  of  the 
archipelago,  and  the  fact  that  their  canoes  are  made 
of  trunks  of  trees,  propelled  with  jiaddles,  and 
that  a  single  frail  craft  is  sometimes  laden  with  a 
family  consisting  of  several  persons,  their  feats  are 
little  less  than  marvels  of  navigation. 

About  fifty  years  ago  English  missions  were  estab- 
lished at  Usuhaia,  on  the  AVallston  Islands,  and  later 


INDIANS  87 

at  Takanika,  where  some  favorable  results  were  ob- 
tained in  distracting  the  natives  somewhat  from 
the  ]Hirsuits  of  their  nomadic  life.  A  few  of  them 
utilize  the  knowledge  ac(iuired  from  the  mission- 
aries in  the  cultivation  of  the  soil.  But  the  mis- 
sionaries having  practically  ceased  their  efforts  in 
that  inhospitable  country,  most  of  the  Indians  have 
lapsed  into  their  traditional  nomadic  life,  and  their 
condition  is  perhaps  worse  to-day  than  ever  before. 
To  add  to  the  misfortunes  of  these  miserable  no- 
mads, who  have  sterility  of  soil  and  a  rigorous  cli- 
mate to  contend  with,  many  of  them  have  been 
placed  in  actual  slavery  in  recent  years  by  foreign- 
ers, who  have  acquired  interests  in  the  far  south, 
and  taking  advantage  of  the  helplessness  of  the  In- 
dians have  impressed  them  into  service  without  jus- 
tification in  moral  or  statutory  law. 

The  Chilean  government,  apparently  indifferent 
to  their  fate,  has  failed  to  interest  itself  in  the  cause 
of  those  unfortunate  pariahs  of  human  society, 
whose  ranks  are  being  rapidly  decimated  and  whose 
utter  extinction,  under  present  conditions,  is  only 
a  question  of  a  few  years. 

In  1882,  Mr.  Bridge,  the  missionary,  calculated 
the  Yahgan  population  of  the  archipelago  of  Tierra 
del  Fuego  at  three  thousand,  but  in  1883,  the  scien- 
tific expedition  of  the  ''Komanche"  estimated  the 
diminishing  population  at  one  thousand  three  hun- 
dred. This  estimate  was  based  upon  the  number 
of  canoes  counted  in  the  channels,  approximately 
two  hundred,  each  of  which  was  manned  by  a  family 
of  six  persons  on  the  average.  From  later  data, 
which  has  been  furnished  by  people  li\dng  in  the 


88  PROGRESSIVE  CPIILE 

archipelago,  who  have  endeavored  to  make  a 
census  of  the  jDopulalion,  the  number  of  this  tribe 
is  calculated  at  seven  hundred. 

On  several  occasions  the  Yahgans  have  requested 
foreigners  who  have  visited  tlie  islands  to  present 
their  case  to  the  Chilean  government  and  ask  for 
relief  from  existing  conditions.  But  so  far  nothing 
has  been  done  in  the  way  of  providing  for  or  im- 
proving the  condition  of  these  unfortunate  people. 

ALACALUPES. 

The  Alacalupes  occupy  the  coast  of  the  Patago- 
nian  Cordilleras  to  the  northwest  of  tlie  Straits  of 
Magellan.  They  are  also  nomads,  practicall}^  living 
in  their  canoes.  Like  the  Yahgans  they  are  small 
and  are  very  dark,  their  color  being  that  of  ma- 
hogany. Notwithstanding  the  severity  of  the  cli- 
mate they  wear  no  clothing,  and  their  appearance 
is  one  of  misery  and  total  depravity.  Their  only 
food  is  fish,  which  they  are  most  dexterous  in  catch- 
ing, and  which  is  eaten  raw.  This  tribe  has  no 
chiefs,  nor  has  it  any  laws  governing  or  restricting 
individual  action.  They  have  no  religion  and  ob- 
serve no  religious  rites.  All  property,  such  as  they 
have,  is  individual.  Agriculture  is  unknown  among 
them.  When  not  in  their  canoes  tliey  remain  along 
the  shore,  never  going  far  inland.  They  some- 
times cut  branches  from  trees  and  arrange  them  as 
a  protection  against  the  fierce  winds  that  sweep  the 
coast  in  winter,  but  they  never  use  fire,  either  as  a 
protection  against  cold  or  for  cooking. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  these  poor,  de- 
praved human  beings  wear  no  clothing,  they  are  not 
dead  to  a  sense  of  modesty,  as  is  sometimes  evi- 


INDIANS  89 

denced  when  in  the  presence  of  foreigners,  j\far- 
riage  is  a  question  of  reciprocal  sentiment,  without 
ceremony  or  demonstration.  Each  of  tliese  tribes 
speaks  a  different  language,  which  like  all  Indian 
languages  is  euphonious,  and  attractive  in  its  sim- 
plicity. 

PATAGONIANS. 

The  most  intelligent  and  progressive  race  of 
aborigines  in  southern  South  America,  a  tribe  that 
raises  to  considerable  extent  the  general  low  level 
of  life  that  exists  in  that  section,  is  the  Patago- 
nians.  They  live  in  well-constructed,  portable 
tents,  called  "toldos,"  made  from  guanaco  skins, 
fastened  to  wooden  supports  by  rawhide  thongs, 
and  staked  to  the  ground  with  pieces  of  bone. 
These  toldos  are  so  arranged  that  they  can  be  easily 
taken  apart  and  removed  as  necessity  may  require. 
Their  food  consists  of  the  meat  of  the  ostrich,  gua- 
naco and  deer,  all  of  which  abound  in  the  territory 
inhabited  by  them. 

Physically  the  Patagonians  are  a  superior  race, 
the  average  height  of  the  men  being  considerably 
over  six  feet,  and  many  of  them  are  fully  seven  feet 
tall.  They  are  well  proportioned,  deep  chested  and 
muscular.  They  have  intelligent  faces,  regular  fea- 
tures, aquiline  nose,  high  forehead  and  square  chin. 
Their  facial  ex})ression  is  one  of  amiability  and 
good  nature.  The  complexion  of  the  men,  when 
their  faces  are  clean  of  paint,  is  a  reddish  brown; 
that  of  the  women  a  healthy,  ruddy  hue.  The  young 
women  are  often  good-looking,  but  the  severe  cli- 
mate and  their  manner  of  living  make  them  prema- 
turely old  and  ugly.     The  men's  costume  consists 


90  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

of  a  woolen  cloth  worn  next  to  the  body,  and  a  heavy 
cloak  made  of  guanaco  skins,  fastened  at  the  neck 
and  extending-  to  the  ankles.  Their  high  boots, 
"buskins,"  are  made  from  the  skin  of  the  lower  part 
of  the  hind  legs  of  horses,  and  worn  in  the  natural 
form.  These  buskins  are  procured  from  the  wild 
horses,  thousands  of  wliich  roam  over  the  pampas 
of  Patagonia.  The  costume  of  the  women  is  prac- 
tically tlie  same  as  that  worn  by  the  men,  except  that 
the  clothing  beneath  the  guanaco  cloak  is  a  little 
more  elaborate. 

They  possess  the  Indian  characteristic  fondness 
for  jewelry  and  personal  adornment.  They  wear 
huge  silver  earrings,  the  pendants  of  which  are 
sometimes  eight  inches  square;  they  also  adorn 
themselves  with  silver  necklaces  and  quantities  of 
beads.  A  Patagonian  Indian  six  and  a  half  feet 
tall,  robed  in  a  beautiful  guanaco  cloak  with  flowing 
folds,  and  adorned  with  huge  silver  ornaments,  pre- 
sents a  picturesque  and  striking  appearance. 

The  Patagonians  differ  from  most  Indian  races 
in  their  observance  of  certain  hygienic  laws.  They 
sleep  upon  beds  made  of  guanaco  skins,  in  tents  that 
are  kept  fairly  clean.  Men,  women  and  children  in- 
dulge in  a  cold  bath  every  morning  in  the  year. 
This  practice,  in  addition  to  aiding  materially  in 
building  up  and  maintaining  the  splendid  physical 
constitutions  for  which  they  are  noted,  enables 
them  to  withstand  more  easily  the  rigors  of  the  se- 
vere climate.  Their  occupation  is  that  of  hunting 
the  ostrich,  gTianaco  and  other  animals  indigenous 
to  the  territory.  The  flesh  of  the  game  is  used  for 
food,  and  the  skins  converted  into  robes  and  rugs, 
which  they  market  at  Punta  Arenas,  and  for  which 


INDIANS  91 

they  receive  good  prices.  They  are  skillful  hunters 
and  the  method  they  employ  in  hunting  ostriches 
and  guanacos  is  unique.  They  possess  firearms, 
both  rifles  and  revolvers,  and  are  not  unskilled  in 
their  use;  they  also  carry  swords,  daggers  and 
lances,  which  are  used  only  when  dismounted,  and 
none  of  which  are  employed  in  the  chase.  Os- 
triches and  animals  are  jDursued  on  horseback,  the 
hunter  carrying  a  "bola,"  which  on  near  approach 
to  the  object  of  his  pursuit  he  hurls  with  unerring 
aim,  seldom  failing  to  stun  and  entangle  the  bird 
or  beast  until  it  becomes  an  easy  victim  to  his  knife 
or  lance.  The  bola,  which  is  peculiar  to  Patagonia, 
consists  of  three  round  stones,  or  metal  balls,  the 
size  of  an  orange,  covered  with  rawhide.  To  each 
of  these  is  fastened  a  plaited  rawhide  rope  six  feet 
in  length.  The  ends  of  these  ropes  are  united  and 
fastened  to  a  lasso.  The  hunter  before  casting  the 
bola  takes  it  in  one  hand  and  by  swinging  it  rapidly 
over  his  head  sends  the  balls  rotating  in  the  air  with 
great  velocity.  He  then  casts  it  as  the  vaquero 
does  his  lasso.  When  it  strikes,  the  revolving  balls 
wrap  the  thongs  tightly  about  the  object  of  the 
chase,  entangling  it  and  putting  a  stop  to  its  flight. 
The  hunter  then  rides  along  by  the  side  of  the  en- 
trammeled  prey  and  dispatches  it.  It  is  an  excit- 
ing scene  to  see  a  Patagonian  mounted  upon  a  fleet 
pony  racing  across  the  pampa  in  pursuit  of  an  os- 
trich. It  possesses  elements  of  sport  that  are 
peculiarly  attractive  to  one  who  is  fond  of  hunting. 
These  people  have  no  religious  creed  and  do  not 
believe  in  a  personal  God.  There  is  a  tradition 
among  them  that  there  is  a  great  good  spirit  who 
created  them,  but  they  have  no  well-defined  creed, 


92  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

and  religions  feasts  are  iinlviiown  among  them. 
They  believe  in  the  sanctity  of  animals,  but  do  not 
worship  any  of  them.  The}^  have  a  superstitious 
dread  of  demons,  whom  they  try  to  propitiate 
through  the  mediation  of  medicine  men,  to  whom 
only  the  demons  are  supposed  to  be  visible. 
Charms  and  talismans  are  worn  as  a  means  of 
warding  off  evil  spirits.  They  are  ignorant  of  cul- 
ture and  conventionalities,  yet  they  are  not  un- 
grateful or  inhospitable.  They  never  give  pres- 
ents, nor  will  they  receive  favors  from  others. 

One  of  the  queer  customs  of  this  peculiar  people 
is  that  of  celebrating  marriages.  The  bridegroom 
secures  the  consent  of  both  his  own  parents  and 
those  of  the  bride.  The  fathers  of  the  young  cou- 
ple then  move  their  tents  near  each  other.  An  un- 
saddled horse  is  placed  in  front  of  each  of  the  tents, 
and  at  a  prearranged  signal  the  bride  and  groom 
rush  from  their  respective  tents,  mount  the  horses 
and  gallop  away  on  their  wedding  trip. 


CLASSIFIED  HUSBANDMEN 

TO  describe  the  life  of  the  country  x>eople  of 
Chile  it  is  necessary  to  classify  the  disintegrate 
parts  which  enter  into  combination  with  all  those 
who  till  the  soil,  and  in  which  each  has  a  personal 
and  common  interest.  The  first  grade  in  the  classi- 
fication is  the  peon,  the  lowest  class,  who  owns  no 
land,  and  is  illiterate,  hard  working,  destitute,  and 
docile. 

The  second.  Land  Owner  No,  1,  lives  upon  a  small 
plot  of  non-productive  ground.  The  possession  is 
small,  but  nevertheless  his  own,  acquired  by  indus- 
try, economy,  or  inheritance.  If  he  works  for  oth- 
ers as  a  peon,  it  is  a  matter  of  choice.  If  he  has 
sons  they  work  where  they  choose.  His  land  being 
insufficient  to  maintain  himself  and  family,  is  used 
as  a  residence  only. 

The  third  husbandman  in  the  classification  is  dif- 
ferent only  in  distinction  as  to  the  amount  of  his 
worldly  effects ;  his  habits,  customs  and  life  are  the 
same  as  Land  Owner  No.  1,  except  upon  a  little 
more  extensive  scale.  He  is  perhaps  more  selfish 
and  self-contained.  His  ambition  is  not  to  improve 
himself  or  his  family,  but  to  add  to  his  money  and 
possessions.  He  is  facilitated  somewhat  in  his 
avaricious  aims  by  his  small  means. 

The  fourth  grade  in  the  agricultural  classification 
is  the  outgrowth,  the  evolution  of  the  classes  below 
him.     He  calls  himself  a  gentleman,  but  lacks  the 

93 


94  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

breeding-,  manners  and  education  to  justify  the  title. 
He  is  of  the  "roto"  t3q)e,  only  richer,  and  better 
dressed,  on  parade  occasions.  He  owns  lands  suf- 
ficient to  support  himself  and  family  without  man- 
ual labor.  This  independence  is  usually  acquired 
by  years  of  selfish  economy  and  penuriousness,  or 
by  inheritance  or  marriage.  His  one  aim  in  life 
seems  to  be  the  acquisition  of  money,  no  matter  by 
what  means. 

Fifth  and  last  in  the  grading  of  the  agriculturists 
comes  the  hacendado,  or  landlord,  the  owner  of 
large,  valuable  and  productive  haciendas.  He  usu- 
ally regards  himself  as  the  prince  of  eartli,  all-pow- 
erful and  influential.  His  hacienda  is  his  dukedom, 
his  fortress.  No  one  can  enter  or  leave  without  his 
permission  and  all  within  its  limits  do  his  bidding 
unquestioned.  He  is  lord  and  monarch  of  all  he 
surveys,  and  takes  little  heed  of  those  below  his 
social  station.  The  hacendados  run  politics  and 
make  presidents,  name  congressmen,  senators, 
judges  and  governors. 

PEONS. 

It  is  difficult  to  describe  the  peon,  or  Roto 
Chileno.  He  is  contradictory  by  nature,  compound 
and  complex  in  character.  He  is  industrious  and 
lazy,  simple  and  cunning,  honest  and  dishonest, 
brave  and  cowardly,  true  and  false.  He  is  home- 
less, roving,  restless,  dirty,  slovenly,  cares  nothing 
for  his  i^ast  life  and  is  without  hope  or  ambition 
for  the  future.  With  limitless  improvidence  he 
lives  in  the  present  and  is  a  happy-go-lucky,  gener- 
ous, careless,  good-natured  individual  who  never 
wastes  time  gazing  upon  the  sorry  side  of  life.     He 


CLASSIFIED  HUSBANDMEN  95 

roams  from  place  to  place  in  search  of  a  job,  earn- 
ing barely  enough  to  keep  soul  and  body  together, 
and  not  always  sufficient  to  clothe  himself.  Rus- 
sian serfdom  is  not  worse  than  tlie  life  some  live 
in  Chile,  especially  the  "inquilinos"  (farm  labor- 
ers), living  upon  their  master's  property.  Do  not 
pity  the  peon ;  he  does  not  ask  for,  need  nor  want  it. 
He  possesses  the  faithful  humility  of  a  dog  and  the 
cunning  qualities  of  the  fox.  Do  not  tiy  to  reform, 
civilize,  reconstruct,  or  otherwise  change  or  reclaim 
him;  he  will  successfully  defy  all  efforts.  The 
blood  of  the  Incas  is  in  his  veins,  the  old-fashioned 
way  is  best  for  him,  and  he  is  content.  He  wants 
no  changes  or  innovations,  and  will  admit  of  none. 
All  he  wants  is  to  be  left  alone.  Although  he  has 
never  known  the  pleasure  of  prosperity,  he  is  ap- 
parently contented  and  never  unhappy.  Born  in 
poverty  and  humility,  so  he  lives  and  dies. 

The  Roto  Chilenos  not  only  constitute  the  labor- 
ing class  in  Chile,  but  the  army,  navy  and  police 
force  are  largely  recruited  from  their  ranks.  As 
soldiers  they  possess  a  reckless  bravery  that  will 
stop  at  nothing.  With  a  cry  of  ''viva  Chile"  they 
will  charge  an  enemy,  never  to  return,  unless  vic- 
tory makes  it  possible.  They  are  fearless  to  fool- 
hardiness.  The}^  will  rush  fortifications  under  fire, 
scale  walls  or  steep  bluffs,  swim  rivers,  and  if  all 
are  killed  the  loss  is  not  considered.  One  single 
handed  will  not  fight  against  odds,  but  in  numbers 
and  in  hand  to  hand  conflicts  the  bravery  of  the 
Chileno  is  not  excelled  by  any  nationality.  They 
do  not  fight  intelligently,  but  desperately.  Their 
favorite  weapon  is  a  knife,  and  every  Roto  Chileno 
goes  armed  with  a  ''corvo,"  a  knife  with  a  long, 


96  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

curved  blade,  taperinc:  to  a  sharp  point,  and  usu- 
ally ornamented  with  a  heavy  metal  handle.  It  is 
encased  in  a  leather  sheath,  and  is  carried  in  the 
belt  or  boot  of  the  possessor.  It  is  an  article  of 
connnon  utility,  as  well  as  a  weapon  of  offense  and 
defense.  Wlien  angered,  or  threatened  with  dan- 
ger, the  Chilean  produces  a  corvo  as  naturally  as 
the  American  negro  does  a  razor,  and  he  is  exceed- 
ingly skillful  in  its  use.  It  is  not  an  uncommon 
thing  for  one  peon  to  disembowel  another  with  one 
sweep  of  the  corvo,  usually  leaving  a  triangular 
shaped  wound,  a  mark  of  this  weapon  that  is  pe- 
culiar to  the  people.  As  an  evidence  of  their  par- 
tiality for  the  knife  as  a  fighting  weapon,  it  is 
related  that  in  many  instances  during  the  war  be- 
tween Peru  and  Chile,  in  time  of  battle,  the  Chilean 
soldiers  threw  away  their  rifles  and  rushed  upon 
the  enemy  with  corvos,  fighting  in  hand-to-hand 
conflict. 

These  same  men  are  afraid  of  a  small  dog,  and 
will  exhibit  fear  in  many  ways  under  most  ordinary 
circumstances.  Contradictory  elements  enter  into 
their  composite  characters.  They  are  patient,  long 
suffering,  and  have  wonderful  endurance.  They 
think  nothing  of  a  serious  flesh  wound,  but  if  one 
of  them  has  a  toothache  or  headache  he  will  wrap 
up  his  head  like  an  old  woman  with  the  mum])s. 
Often  they  wear  such  a  woe-begone,  lost  look  that 
one  would  almost  believe  in  their  manifest  troubles 
if  their  cunning  ways  of  shirking  a  duty  were  not 
so  well  known. 

With  five  centavos  in  his  pocket  the  roto  is  a  cap- 
italist, and  will  not  work  until  in'ompted  by  neces- 
sity.    He   speaks   Spanish   badly,   and   in   a  mum- 


CLASSIFIED  HUSBANDMEN  97 

bling,  drawling  manner,  often  using  the  most  vile 
and  profane  language  in  the  presence  of  both 
men  and  women  of  his  own  class.  In  stature  the 
Koto  Chileno  is,  as  a  rule,  short,  massive  and  mus- 
cular; his  skin  is  an  amber  brown.  He  has  small, 
black,  beady  eyes,  slight  beard,  stiff  black  hair  that 
grows  low  upon  his  forehead.  The  shape  of  his 
head  is  generally  that  of  a  pumpkin,  the  back  of  the 
head  being  quite  flat.  He  has  a  short,  thick  neck, 
large  flat  feet,  and  small  tapering  hands.  The  ears, 
mouth  and  nose  are  not  out  of  proportion  to  his 
size.  He  walks  with  a  rapid,  ambling  gait,  body 
bent  forward,  legs  wdde  apart  and  his  long  arms 
swinging  at  his  sides.  His  few,  scanty,  ragged  gar- 
ments are  usually  covered  with  a  homemade  wool 
'' poncho."  The  bottoms  of  his  feet  are  covered 
with  rawhide  sandals,  '^ojotas,"  and  he  invariably 
wears  a  straw  hat,  ''clmpalla."  The  general  ap- 
pearance of  the  roto,  as  one  sees  him  on  the  road, 
with  dirty  face,  dingy  straw  hat  drawn  well  down 
over  his  eyes,  trousers  rolled  up  at  the  ankle,  shirt 
open  at  the  chest,  a  corvo  in  his  belt  and  a  poncho 
thrown  over  his  shoulders,  is  that  of  approaching 
ruin.  His  face  is  more  repulsive  than  ugly,  and  he 
is  more  nearly  naked  than  ragged.  Some  of  the 
more  provident  among  them,  however,  wear  clean 
clothes  on  Sundays  and  other  feast  days.  They 
occasionally  wash  their  hands  and  faces,  but  never 
their  bodies.  They  are  by  nature  a  pacific  peoi^le. 
The  fighting  spirit  is  generally  aroused  in  them  by 
the  consumption  of  bad  liquor.  They  help  each 
other  in  their  personal  work  or  difficulties,  and  are 
great  jokers,  one  with  another. 

The     '' patron '^    (employer)     always     furnishes 


98  PEOGRESSIVE  CHILE 

food  to  his  laborers.  The  universal  food  of  the 
country  for  the  poor  people  is  "porotos"  (beans), 
and  the  ration  for  each  man  or  boy,  per  day,  is  all 
the  beans  he  can  hold  in  his  two  hands  placed  to- 
gether. The  rations  are  cooked  together,  as  many 
being  placed  in  tlie  pot  as  there  are  persons  to  be 
provisioned.  At  meal-time  the  pot  is  delivered  to 
the  peons  who  sit  on  the  ground  in  a  circle 
around  the  vessel.  Each  is  supposed  to  have  his 
own  spoon,  but  if  not,  a  flat  stick  or  piece  of  bark 
serves  the  purpose.  After  all  are  seated  each  dips 
into  the  pot  and  eats  until  the  allowance  is  finished. 
One  meal  is  all  they  eat  in  a  day  after  eight  o'clock 
in  tlie  morning,  at  which  hour  they  eat  a  loaf  of 
bhick  bread,  in  exchange  for  which  they  may  re- 
ceive a  double  handful  of  toasted  wheat,  "harina 
tostado."  This  diet  is  never  changed,  never  varied, 
after  they  leave  the  mother's  breast.  When  the 
supply  of  beans  is  short,  ''mote"  (wheat  boiled  in 
lye  until  the  hull  is  loosened,  after  wdiich  it  is  re- 
moved by  rubbing  the  grains  between  two  stones), 
is  sometimes  mixed  with  the  beans. 

In  the  extreme  southern  part  of  Chile,  the  ration 
is  somewhat  different.  There,  "chuchoca"  (green 
corn  boiled  and  dried  on  the  cob)  is  mixed  with  the 
beans.  The  peons  never  depart  from  the  es- 
tablished ration.  When  not  working  they  eat  a  lit- 
tle parched  wheat  flour  in  the  morning,  or  such 
other  food  as  they  may  be  lucky  enough  to  ob- 
tain. If  one  has  no  food  he  goes  to  some  rancho 
where  there  is  a  supply,  and  where  he  is  invariably 
served,  as  they  are  always  generous  with  each 
other. 

Peons  will  sleep  anywhere,  in  places  wet  or  dry, 


CLASSIFIED  HUSBANDMEN  99 

clean  or  unclean.  With  a  stick  of  wood  or  a  stone 
for  a  pillow,  and  with  a  poncho  spread  over  him  he 
will  sleep  the  sleep  of  innocence,  without  care  for 
the  present  or  thought  of  the  future.  An  old 
''mozo"  (man  servant),  known  to  be  honest, 
through  many  years  of  faithful  service,  went  one 
day  to  the  home  of  his  former  employer,  where  he 
was  given  food,  and  a  bed  was  provided  for  him  in 
the  house.  During  the  night  the  gentleman  was 
disturbed  by  sounds  of  apparent  distress  in  the  cor- 
ridor. Thinking  the  mozo  was  ill,  he  went  to  in- 
quire the  cause  of  the  trouble.  The  peon  informed 
him  that  he  could  not  sleep  upon  that  "soft  thing," 
meaning  the  mattress,  and  asked  permission  to 
make  his  bed  out-of-doors.  He  was  informed  that 
he  could  sleep  where  he  pleased.  Taking  his  sad- 
dle for  a  pillow,  and  a  sheepskin  for  his  bed,  and 
spreading  a  poncho  over  him  he  lay  down  upon  the 
pavement  of  the  patio.  In  the  morning  he  was 
found  sleeping  soundly,  his  face  turned  toward 
heaven,  his  unkempt  beard  covered  with  frost. 

Peons  in  the  cities  do  not  receive  a  daily  ration 
of  beans,  as  is  the  custom  in  the  country,  but  are 
given  money,  "diario,"  with  which  to  buy  food. 
The  Chilean  peon  cannot  stand  prosperity.  As  a 
general  rule  the  worse  he  is  treated  and  fed,  the  bet- 
ter service  he  will  render.  This  applies  more  di- 
rectly to  the  ''inquilinos,"  than  to  independent 
peons. 

The  rotos  are  polite  to  each  other  and  salute 
when  they  meet  by  touching  their  hats,  saying 
"Buenos  dias,  Caballeros"  (good  day,  gentlemen). 
Wlion  asking  for  and  receiving  a  light  for  a  ciga- 
rette, they  say,  "Mil  gracias,  Dios  guarde  Ud.,"  (a 


100  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

thousand  thanks,  God  guard  you),  "\\lien  a  peon 
meets  a  superior  who  says,  ^'como  le  va"  (how  do 
you  do),  the  peon  answers,  ''muy  bien,  para  servirle 
a  Ud.,"  (very  good,  I  offer  you  my  services).  They 
are  rarely  insolent  to  their  superiors  and  when  so- 
ber, never.  They  are  illiterate  to  the  extreme,  hav- 
ing no  desire  to  learn,  but  they  are  naturally  clever 
and  are  capalile  of  rendering  good  service,  where 
mechanical  skill  is  not  required.  You  cannot  out- 
figure  one  of  them,  and  he  will  quickly  remind  you 
of  any  mistake  in  a  transaction,  if  it  counts  against 
him. 

Among  the  roto  class,  grandfather,  father  and 
son  all  work  together,  and  have  always  been,  as 
they  are  now,  upon  an  equality  in  destitution. 
Their  only  apparent  ambition  seems  to  be  to  work 
enough  during  the  week  to  secure  a  few  pesos  on 
Saturday  night,  with  which  to  buy  '^iguardiente" 
(raw  brandy),  ''vino"  or  "chicha"  (wine  or  ci- 
der) at  the  "Canclia  de  Bola."  When  a  crowd  of 
peons  congregate  at  any  one  of  the  many  places 
where  drinks  are  sold,  in  the  country,  first  one  buys 
a  litro  (quart),  and  after  taking  a  drink,  he  passes 
the  cup,  called  "potrillo,"  to  the  friend  next  to  him, 
and  so  it  is  passed  until  empty.  Then  another  buys 
a  litro  and  passes  it,  and  they  continue  to  treat  each 
other  until  all  are  fighting  drunk.  This  is  contin- 
ued from  Saturday  night  until  Monday  morning, 
and  not  infrequently  until  Monday  night  or  Tues- 
day. Employers  of  labor  have  learned  by  experi- 
ence not  to  expect  anything  from  or  depend  upon 
their  workmen  for  regular  service  on  Monday,  as 
the  majority  of  them  are  incapacitated  from  the  ef- 
fects of  drink — on  Sunday.    In  the  drinking  places 


CLASSIFIED  HUSBANDMEN  101 

where  the  roto  spends  his  Sundays  and  feast  days, 
in  drinking  and  gambling-,  there  are  always  a  num- 
ber of  women,  "cantoras,"  who  join  in  the  drink- 
ing, and  between  drinks  entertain  the  crowd  with 
dancing  and  singing,  playing  accompaniments  on 
guitars. 

The  Saturday  night  and  Sunday  debauch  of  the 
peons  generally  commences  after  a  hard  week's 
work,  and  frequently  lasts  thirty-six  hours  without 
sleep,  and  sixty  hours  without  food.  After  having 
slept  off  the  effects  of  drink,  they  are  ready  for 
busine'ss  Tuesday  or  Wednesday  morning-.  When 
they  return  to  work  they  give  a  legal  day's  labor, 
without  persuasion  to  stimulate  their  activity.  All 
differences  are  forgotten  and  no  questions  asked, 
knowing  that  it  is  only  a  few  days  until  they  will 
have  another  spree,  and  the  weekly  experience  be 
repeated.  They  are  inveterate  gamblers.  Men 
may  be  seen  naked  in  the  road,  having  lost  all  their 
clothing  on  a  game  of  chance.  The  game  may  be 
cards,  dice,  topeadura,  a  cock  fight  or  any  contest 
in  which  the  result  is  in  doubt.  The  peon  is  a  born 
gambler,  and  a  cheerful  loser.  If  beaten  in  a  game 
he  accepts  the  results  with  the  indifference  of  a 
stoic  or  the  sang-froid  of  a  professional.  He  never 
complains,  but  bides  his  time  for  another  chance  to 
recover  his  losses. 

The  ''Cancha  de  Bola,"  the  peon's  clubhouse,  is 
a  cemented  or  smooth  floor  space,  covered  with  a 
thatched  roof,  but  not  enclosed.  The  game  at  the 
cancha  is  a  sort  of  Indian  billiards,  played  by  roll- 
ing large  wooden  balls  over  the  floor.  There  men 
and  women  meet  on  Sundays  and  feast  days,  to  play 
games,  drink  and  discuss  the  events  of  the  week. 


102  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

And  every  cent  is  coaxed  from  every  pocket  to  fill 
the  coffers  of  the  owner  of  the  cancha. 

Drunkenness  is  one  of  the  chief  curses  of  Chile, 
especially  among  the  connnon  people.  The  moral 
standard  is  not  of  a  character  that  sets  a  ban  upon 
drunkenness,  and  the  custom  of  excessive  drinking- 
is  indulged  in  by  men,  women,  and  not  infrequently 
children.  All  classes  are  engaged  more  or  less  in 
the  manufacture,  sale  and  consumption  of  wine, 
chicha,  aguardiente  and  pisco,  the  latter  being  alco- 
hol made  from  the  white  grape.  Every  village 
store  or  shop  dispenses  liquors,  and  many  of  the 
huts  along  the  country  roads  retail  drinks.  On 
Sundays  and  feast  days  these  road  houses  are  com- 
mon resorts  for  peons,  huasos  and  inquilinos.  And 
there  \dciousness  and  crime  are  encouraged  by  ex- 
cessive indulgence  in  cheap,  and  often  adulterated 
and  poisonous  wines  and  liquors. 

A  new  liquor  law  went  into  effect  in  1902,  which 
had  for  its  purpose  a  sweeping  reform  in  the  manu- 
facture and  sale  of  intoxicants.  It  takes  control  of 
the  production,  limits  the  number  and  location  of 
saloons;  prohibits  the  sale  within  a  reasonable  dis- 
tance of  a  church  or  schoolhouse,  imposes  a  fine 
upon  drunkenness  and  provides  a  severe  penalty 
for  the  adulteration,  falsifying  or  placing  upon  the 
market  a  product  of  the  country  not  up  to  the 
standard  fixed  by  law.  But  reforms  and  radical 
changes  in  customs  in  Chile  are  much  easier  in 
theory  than  in  practice,  and  the  promoters  of  the 
liquor  law  find  it  difficult  to  enforce  its  provisions. 
It  is,  however,  a  move  in  the  right  direction,  and 
much  good  has  resulted  from  the  effort  to  carry  it 
into  effect. 


CLASSIFIED  HUSBANDMEN  103 

The  scene  at  a  country  despacho  on  Sunday  or 
feast  days  is  as  picturesque  as  it  is  characteristic. 
There  one  will  see  a  great  number  of  men  and 
women  on  horseback,  frequently  indulging  in  their 
cups,  while  seated  on  their  horses  in  front  of  the 
despacho.  The  men  are  dressed  in  the  peculiar 
costume  of  the  country,  wide-brimmed  straw  hats, 
ornamented  with  silk  cord  or  braid,  ponchos  of 
brilliant  colors,  leggings  reaching  to  the  thighs, 
huge  spurs  and  high  heeled,  pointed  toed  boots. 
Their  saddles  and  bridles  are  richly  ornamented, 
curiously  fashioned,  and  form  an  interesting  fea- 
ture of  the  peculiar  outfit.  To  the  side  of  the  sad- 
dle is  usually  attached  a  lasso,  made  of  braided 
rawhide,  strong,  supple  and  ready  for  instant  use. 
With  this  article  the  huaso  is  an  artist.  He  prac- 
tices the  trick  of  casting  the  lasso  in  his  infancy, 
keeps  it  up  in  youth,  and  becomes  a  master  in  the  use 
of  it  as  a  man.  One  end  is  attached  to  his  saddle, 
and  the  pony  on  which  he  is  mounted  is  schooled  in 
all  the  tricks  of  pursuing  the  animal  or  object  to  be 
captured,  and  to  stop  suddenly  and  brace  itself  for 
the  shock  when  the  lasso  has  been  thrown.  So  ac- 
curate is  the  aim  that  it  is  difficult  for  man  or  beast 
to  escape  the  noose  of  the  huaso 's  lasso  when  he 
sends  it  circling  through  the  air.  He  is  even  more 
clever  than  the  cowboy  of  the  western  plains,  for 
the  reason  that  his  education  begins  earlier  in  life. 
His  use  of  the  lasso  is  not  always  limited  to  the 
business  of  capturing  animals.  He  frequently  re- 
sorts to  it  as  a  means  of  sport. 

Two  or  more  will  take  sides,  and,  riding  at  each 
other  full  speed,  attempt  to  drag  their  opponents 
from  their  horses.     There  is  little  regard  for  con- 


104  PBOGRESSIVE  CHILE 

sequences,  and  when  tlie  noose  encircles  the  arm, 
neck,  or  body  of  one,  and  he  receives  the  shock  that 
comes  from  being  suddenly  dragged  from  his  horse 
at  the  end  of  a  rawhide  rope,  the  sensation  is  not 
pleasant  to  say  the  least. 

Unless  fired  by  bad  liquor  there  prevails  among 
the  Chilean  huasos  a  general  good  fellowship  and 
friendly  familiarity.  They  are  clannish,  with  a 
strong  prejudice  against  all  ''gringos"  (foreign- 
ers). When  a  crowd  of  huasos  congregate  in  the 
country  or  village,  they  invariably  indulge  in  some 
excating  games  or  contests  requiring  rare  skill  on 
the  part  of  the  participants,  and  strength  and  en- 
durance of  the  stocky,  intelligent  ponies  on  which 
they  are  mounted.  One  of  the  most  common  of 
their  sports  is  "topeadura,"  on  which  large  suras 
of  money  are  frequently  wagered — a  game  which 
the  people  for  miles  around  will  assemble  to  see. 
On  feast  days  it  is  the  common  attraction  at  all  the 
despachos  and  road  houses,  and  every  hacienda  of 
any  consequence  has  its  own  contest  at  such  times. 
The  game  is  played  at  a  long  pole  called  "vara," 
generally  cut  from  the  blue  gum,  and  fixed  in  Y- 
shaped  supports,  the  object  of  the  opposing  teams 
being  to  push  each  other  back  to  the  end  of  the  pole. 
The  captains,  or  leaders,  toss  for  position,  which 
is  important,  as  the  winner  places  his  horse's  head 
under  that  of  his  opponent's,  giving  him  the  ad- 
vantage of  driving  his  mount  like  a  wedge  between 
the  other  and  the  pole.  Other  members  of  the  two 
teams  range  themselves  behind  the  captains,  and  a 
perfect  pandemonium  of  clamor  arises  from  the 
players  and  spectators  as  soon  as  the  struggle  be- 
gins.    The  horses  enter  into  the  spirit  of  the  game, 


CLASSIFIED  HUSBANDMEN  105 

and  strive  with  every  nerve  and  sinew  to  force 
themselves  forward,  and  it  is  a  rare  thing  to  see 
the  phiyers  use  their  spurs.  The  game  is  far  more 
interesting  when  it  is  reduced  to  a  match  or  wager 
between  two  players  of  note,  because  they  are  then 
splendidly  mounted,  large  sums  often  being  paid 
for  well-trained  horses.  The  terrific  straining  of 
two  animals  to  force  each  other  back  provides  a 
marvelous  study  of  anatomy  with  muscle  at  its 
highest  tension.  The  horse  which  has  the  disad- 
vantage in  position  will,  before  the  signal  to  begin 
has  been  given,  press  down  upon  its  adversary's 
neck  so  as  to  nullify  the  advantage.  A  feature  of 
the  game  is  the  excitement  of  spectators,  one  or 
more  of  whom  are  frequently  impelled  by  zeal  or 
drink,  to  drive  their  horses  into  the  struggle  and 
spoil  it.  Such  interruptions  usually  result  in  the 
indiscreet  meddler  getting  roughly  handled  by  the 
indig-nant  players,  whence  the  Chilean  saying  that 
"topeadura  is  a  good  game  to  watch  from  a  dis- 
tance." 

All  the  horses  of  Chile  cannot,  however,  be 
judged  by  the  standard  of  these  high  priced  sport- 
ing animals.  The  tyi^ical  horse  of  the  country  is 
one  peculiar  to  the  Republic  and  when  mounted  by 
a  huaso  in  his  picturesque  costume,  the  pony  pre- 
sents the  appearance  of  supporting  a  pair  of  spurs 
with  rider  attached.  He  is  a  product  of  the  old 
Spanish  stock,  docile,  intelligent,  and  hardy,  and 
though  he  has  not  the  fine  quarters  of  the  improved 
breeds,  he  is  strong,  has  wonderful  endurance  and 
can  climb  like  a  goat.  They  furnish  all  the  mounts 
for  the  Chilean  cavalry,  and  in  recent  years  Great 
Britain   and    some   of   the   European   nations    are 


lOG  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

adopting  Chilean  horses  for  cavalry  purposes. 
They  are  gentle,  obedient,  seldom  ever  vicious,  and 
are  easily  trained  for  any  kind  of  service.  From 
this  description  it  would  seem  that  the  remarkable 
spurs  invariably  worn  by  the  huaso  and  "vaqueros" 
might  be  dispensed  with,  but  they  are  as  much  a 
part  of  their  riding  kit  as  their  ponchos  and  lassos. 
The  Chilean  saddle,  ''silla,"  is  peculiar  to  the 
country,  and  is  the  most  expensive  part  of  the 
huaso 's  outfit.  Many  of  them  are  works  of  art, 
covered  with  patent  leather,  beautifully  and  elabo- 
rately stitched  with  silk  thread  and  ornamented 
with  silver.  In  shape  they  are  not  unlike  the  Mex- 
ican saddle,  except  that  they  are  shorter  in  the  seat, 
and  the  front,  instead  of  forming  a  high  pommel 
with  a  neck-like  projection,  to  which  the  lasso  is 
fastened,  is  oval-shaped  like  the  high  back,  forming 
a  deep  cushioned  seat  into  which  the  rider  fits 
closely.  On  eitlier  side  in  front  is  a.  leather  roll, 
which  prevents  the  rider  from  slipping  forward. 
The  stirrups,  '^estribos,"  huge  atfairs  made  from 
solid  blocks  of  wood,  artistically  designed,  hand- 
carved  and  beautifully  ornamented,  are  supported 
by  single  straps,  attached  to  the  saddle  so  far  back 
that  they  cause  the  rider  to  lean  well  forward. 
These  stirrups,  which  are  perhaps  the  most  unique 
article  of  their  kind  in  the  world,  are  usually 
adorned  with  silver  or  inlaid  steel  mountings.  The 
wooden  stirrups  prevent  the  feet  of  the  rider  from 
getting  wet  and  protect  them  from  the  ''espino,"  a 
bush  with  harsh,  stiff  branches  and  fierce  thorns; 
they  also  serve  as  a  means  of  warming  the  feet  on 
cold  days,  as  the  person  in  the  saddle  can  by  strik- 
ing his  feet  against  the  stirrups  dispel  the  numb- 


CLASSIFIED  HUSBANDMEN  107 

ness  resulting  from  cold.  The  saddle  is  always 
fastened  with  a  rawhide  cinch  and  never  with  a 
buckle  girth.  Many  of  the  saddles  have  two  cinches 
and  are  bound  so  securely  that  there  is  little  pos- 
sibility of  accident  from  slipping  or  turning. 

The  "montura,"  a  peculiar  kind  of  saddle  much 
used  in  Chile  in  pioneer  days,  is  now  seldom  seen. 
It  is  composed  of  six  sheepskins,  a  rather  excessive 
foundation,  upon  which  is  placed  an  "enjalma,"  a 
skeleton  saddle  made  of  wood  and  bound  together 
with  rawhide.  Over  this  are  spread  six  more  skins 
with  the  wool  on,  the  whole  being  covered  with  a 
beautifully  dressed  kid  skin.  The  montura  is  fas- 
tened with  a  cinch,  into  the  fabric  of  which  is  woven 
the  national  colors  of  the  Republic.  It  constitutes 
a  rather  elevated  seat,  which  gives  to  the  rider  a 
peculiarly  awlovard  position.  But  the  montura 
was  designed  for  and  serves  more  purposes  than 
one.  In  the  early  days  when  roads  were  few  and 
long  trips  were  made  across  country  on  horseback 
the  numerous  skins  comj^osing  the  odd  saddle  were 
used  by  the  rider  for  a  bed  and  covering  at  night. 

The  ''espuelas"  (spurs),  worn  by  the  Chilenos 
are  the  largest  in  the  world,  the  rowels  on  some  of 
them  being  six  or  eight  inches  in  diameter.  In  or- 
der to  prevent  the  rowels  from  dragging  on  the 
ground,  they  are  worn  with  high  heeled  boots  on 
which  there  is  a  leather  projection  back  of  and 
above  the  heel,  upon  which  the  spurs  rest,  and  which 
keeps  them  at  an  elevation  that  prevents  their  com- 
ing in  contact  with  the  ground.  The  rowels  are  not 
sharp,  however,  and  are  less  severe  than  the  smaller 
spurs  with  sharp  cutting  points.  They  are  also 
used  by  the  wearer  as  a  means  of  maintaining  his 


108  PEOGRESSIVE  CHILE 

equilibrium  when  a  horse  attempts  to  unseat  him. 
This  is  accomplished  by  catching  the  spurs  in  the 
saddle  cinch. 

The  bridle,  "freno,"  made  of  plaited  rawhide,  is 
strong',  durable,  and  artistic.  It  is  frequently  or- 
namented with  silver  or  inlaid  steel  attachments. 
Buckles  are  seldom  used  in  the  Chilean  bridle.  The 
reins  are  joined  at  the  ends  with  a  heavy  ring  to 
which  is  attached  a  single  strand  of  braided  raw- 
hide, ending  with  a  flat  piece  of  the  same  material, 
called  ''chicote,"  or  as  is  often  the  case,  loaded 
with  lead,  when  it  is  called  '^penca. "  The  Chilean 
bit  is  unlike  anything  else  of  its  kind.  It  is  an  instru- 
ment of  torture,  unique  in  design  and  terrible  in  its 
effect.  It  is  very  heavy,  and  is  so  formed  that  tho 
rider  can  almost  break  the  jaw  of  a  horse  with  a 
hard,  quick  pull  on  the  reins.  They  are  used  un- 
sparingly upon  the  poor  ponies,  who  serve  their 
masters  so  faithfully.  It  is  a  custom  of  the  huaso 
to  practice  bringing  his  horse  from  a  run  to  an  in- 
stant stop.  He  teaches  the  animal  to  rush  full 
speed  at  any  object.  In  order  to  accomplish  these 
maneuvers  they  apply  the  full  force  of  the  terrible 
bit.  It  is  one  of  the  many  cruelties  practiced  upon 
the  horses.  Originally  the  best  of  the  beautiful  and 
artistic  bits  used  in  Chile  were  designed  by  a  Chil- 
ean mechanic  whose  shop  or  factory  was  at  Pana 
Flor,  a  small  village  near  Santiago.  The  Pana 
Flor  bits  are  known  throughout  the  Pepublic,  and 
the  huaso  who  i)ossesses  one  is  a  proud  man,  espe- 
cially if  it  is  silver  mounted,  as  many  of  them  are. 
The  owner  of  one  of  these  much  prized  articles 
might  be  induced  to  part  with  his  wife,  but  not  with 
his  bridle.     This  is  particularly  true  now  because 


CLASSIFIED  HUSBANDMEN  109 

in  recent  years  the  market  has  been  flooded  with 
cheap  imitations  of  the  gennine  article,  and  the 
Pana  Flor  ,i^'cnius  who  created  the  unique  bit,  so 
characteristic  of  the  country,  has  passed  from  the 
stage  of  action,  and  the  product  is  now  regarded  as 
a  "recuerdo"  of  rare  value. 

With  all  the  ill-treatment  imposed  upon  them, 
the  Chilean  horses  seem  fond  of  their  masters.  If 
left  alone  unfastened  they  will  wait  for  hours  for 
the  return  of  their  owners.  They  will  gallop  long 
distances  over  sand  roads,  up-hill  and  down,  over 
stones,  without  shoes,  and  after  a  night's  foraging 
upon  scant  grass  they  are  fit  for  another  day's 
work  that  may  mean  many  leagues  over  bad  roads. 

It  is  interesting  to  witness  the  performance  of 
a  drunken  huaso  trying  to  reach  home  on  his  pony. 
The  animal,  perhaps  from  much  experience  with 
drunken  riders,  seems  to  understand  the  condition 
of  his  master,  and  his  intelligence  and  patience  in 
trying  to  help  the  man  who  is  helplessly  drunk,  is 
both  amusing  and  pathetic.  He  will  stand  firmly 
and  patiently  until  the  man  is  in  the  saddle,  then 
start  gently  along,  swaying  from  side  to  side  as  the 
rider  loses  his  equilibrium,  and  when  the  man  can 
sit  erect  no  longer,  will  stop  and  wait  for  him  to 
straighten  up.  Sometimes  hours  are  spent  in  go- 
ing a  short  distance.  Cruel  spurs  rake  him,  and 
the  terrible  bit  lacerates  his  mouth,  but  he  seldom 
becomes  excited,  and  if  the  man  falls  off,  the  patient 
beast  invariably  stops  and  waits  for  him  to  re- 
mount. 

For  general  thieving  the  Roto  Chileno  has  an  in- 
ternational reputation,  and  it  is  conceded  that  he 
is  capable  of  more  clever  lying  and  stealing  than 


110  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

any  known  individual.  They  are  not  bold  thieves, 
but  rather  of  the  sneak-lhief  order.  If  useful  arti- 
cles are  left  uno'uarded  they  seem  to  take  wings 
and  fly  away.  Yet  no  one  has  been  seen  or  heard, 
and  the  rotos  are  the  meekest  of  the  innocent. 

With  all  his  faults  the  roto  has,  however,  in 
many  things  a  sense  of  responsibility.  You  may 
place  one  of  them  to  guard  any  property  (liquors 
excepted),  and  he  will  not  steal  nor  permit  others  to 
do  so.  Y^ou  may  dispatch  him  with  ladened  carts, 
trooi)s  of  cargo  mules,  money  or  other  valu- 
ables, and  under  most  circumstances  your  orders 
will  be  executed  with  the  utmost  fidelity.  The  re- 
sponsibility attached  to  the  service,  when  upon 
special  missions,  seems  to  convey  the  idea  that  he 
is  under  your  eye.  His  faults  may  be  attributed 
to  ignorance  and  the  custom  of  bad  example  rather 
than  an  evil  heart.  If  treated  kindly  and  fairly  he 
will  show  some  gratitude  and  appreciation  by  ren- 
dering faithful  service.  All  work  done  by  the 
peons  is  under  the  supervision  of  mayordomos. 
They  are  not  supposed  to  think,  but  simply  to  do 
as  they  are  ordered.  They  work  with  their  hands 
and  not  with  their  heads,  yet  no  one  can  give  a  bet- 
ter day's  work  than  the  roto  when  he  exerts  him- 
self. Their  hours  are  from  sunrise  to  sunset,  stop- 
ping an  hour  for  the  midday  meal.  The  peons 
formerly  received  from  twenty  to  thirty  cents  per 
day,  Chilean  currency,  the  latter  sum  being  paid  to 
those  in  the  country  adjacent  to  the  cities,  but  in 
more  recent  years  they  are  a  little  better  paid. 
They  must  be  paid  on  Saturday  night  or  they  will 
not  work  willingly.  If  not  working,  they  are  left 
without   food,   but   this   makes   little   difference   as 


CLASSIFIED  HUSBANDMEN  111 

those  who  are  employed  divide  with  their  friends. 
The  peons  are  nearly  all  born  out  of  wedlock; 
illegitimacy  is  nothing  to  them.  Many  are  mar- 
ried, but  even  then  they  admit  no  obligations  to 
support  their  families.  In  every  district  they  are 
nearly  all  related.  Fathers,  mothers,  if  they  can  be 
identified,  aunts,  uncles,  nephews,  cousins,  address 
each  other  as  "comdares"  or  "compadres"  (com- 
rades). If  increased  pay  tempts  the  peon  away 
from  his  district,  he  will  save  his  money  until  a  few 
dollars  have  accumulated,  then  he  will  return  and 
spend  it  with  his  old  friends.  In  the  winter 
months,  when  the  rain  prevents  outdoor  work,  they 
have  many  ways  to  get  money.  They  sell  their  la- 
bor in  advance  at  greatly  reduced  rates.  This  is 
called  "en  verde,"  signifying  in  green,  or  while 
growing.  They  sell  a  number  of  "tareas"  of 
wheat,  a  certain  term  used  in  measuring  the  cutting 
of  wheat.  Animals  are  often  sold  before  they  are 
born,  fowls  before  they  are  hatched,  and  wheat  be- 
fore it  is  sown. 

LAND  OWNER  NO.  I. 

The  possessions  of  Land  Owner  No.  1  being  too 
small  to  maintain  himself  and  family,  he  rents  land 
to  till  on  the  shares.  The  custom  is  for  the  land- 
lord to  provide  the  land,  the  seed  and  the  animals 
with  which  to  do  the  cultivating  and  threshing. 
The  tenant  performs  the  labor  and  prepares  for 
market  the  grain,  which  is  divided  equally.  When 
not  engaged  in  the  necessary  work  of  cultivating 
and  harvesting  the  crops  upon  his  own  or  rented 
land,  he  works  in  a  "chacra"  (vegetable  garden), 
or  finds  employment  in  making  adobes,  bricks,  tiles, 


112  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

or  wooden  stirrups,  cutting  lumber,  curing  skins, 
y  etc.  Sometimes  lie  is  sent  by  neighboring  hacen- 
dados  on  errands  to  the  city  for  cargoes  of  goods, 
to  mill  with  wheat,  or  to  the  railway  with  mule 
trains  carrying  charcoal.  His  possessions  consist 
of  a  horse,  a  yoke  of  oxen,  and  possibly  a  mule. 
All  the  tools  that  he  has  or  requires  are  an  ax,  a 
shovel,  a  hoe  and  a  crowbar.  His  animals  are  usu- 
ally pastured  in  the  hacienda,  and  the  ''talaje" 
(pasturage),  paid  for  in  work  during  plowing,  sow- 
ing, or  harvest  time.  His  "rancho"  (house), 
which  he  refers  to  as  ''mi  vivienda,"  is  a  creation 
not  defined  in  the  annals  of  architecture.  It  is  con- 
structed by  placing  a  number  of  poles  in  the 
ground;  to  the  tops  of  these  upright  posts  other 
timbers  of  a  similar  character  are  fastened  by  tying 
them  with  rope  or  pieces  of  bark.  Between  the 
posts,  sticks  and  branches  of  trees  are  woven,  form- 
ing a  sort  of  basket  work.  Over  this  a  coating  of 
mud  mixed  with  straw  forms  the  walls.  The  frame 
for  the  roof  is  also  made  of  the  trunks  of  small 
trees  fastened  together  with  bark;  over  the  crude 
skeleton  is  woven  a  straw  thatch,  which  is  seldom 
rain  proof.  The  door  is  made  by  tying  together 
sticks  or  planks,  for  which  pieces  of  bark  or  raw- 
hide serve  as  hinges.  The  floors  are  dirt,  and 
there  are  no  windows  or  chimneys,  and  when 
necessary  to  build  a  fire  in  the  house  the  smoke  fil- 
ters out  through  crevices  in  the  walls  and  the  thatch 
roof.  These  miserable  huts,  which  form  the 
places  of  habitation  of  the  poor,  are  never  perpen- 
dicular nor  stand  at  proper  angles,  for  the  reason 
that  they  are  shaped  by  the  crooked  timbers  form- 
ing their  framework.     The  interior  presents  an  ap- 


CLASSIFIED  HUSBANDMEN  113 

pearance  quite  as  barren  and  devoid  of  comfort  as 
the  exterior.  The  furniture  consists  of  a  crude 
bedstead,  a  rickety  table,  and  a  few  benches  or 
stools.  There  are  no  articles  of  comfort  or  luxury 
in  the  homes  of  the  poor.  The  men  sleep  upon  the 
ground,  inside  or  out  of  the  house,  as  they  choose, 
or  as  the  weather  permits.  The  crude  furniture  and 
the  burnt  clay  dishes  upon  which  their  food  is 
served  are  made  by  the  women.  The  food  is  usu- 
ally cooked  in  an  iron  kettle  over  an  open  fire,  or 
in  an  oven  of  brick  and  mud  built  outside  of  the 
house.  A  peculiar  feature  of  these  squalid  ranches, 
especially  in  the  interior  of  the  country,  is  the  bar- 
renness of  their  surroundings.  Usually  there  is 
not  a  tree,  shrub,  plant  or  flower,  or  any  living, 
growing,  green  thing  to  relieve  the  dreariness  of 
the  desolate  surroundings.  This  is  all  the  more 
surprising  when  it  is  remembered  that  Chile  pos- 
sesses a  prodigious  soil,  and  that  all  kinds  of  vege- 
tation grows  quickly  and  prolifically  when  water  is 
applied  to  the  ground.  Along  the  railways  and 
near  the  cities  a  majority  of  the  ranchos  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  cultivation  of  a  variety  of  fruit 
trees,  vegetables  and  flowers.  The  site  selected 
for  a  country  house  is  usually  with  reference  to  a 
supply  of  water. 

Viewed  from  the  roadside  these  rickety  ranchos 
present  a  picturesque  appearance.  It  is  the  frayed 
edge  of  home  life  that  is  always  to  be  found  be- 
hind the  sub-tropical  finery  of  semi-tropical  coun- 
tries. It  is  not  well,  however,  to  examine 
too  closely  or  inquire  carefully  into  the  details 
of  this  home  life.  It  is  better  to  be  gra- 
cious,  for   squalid   as   is   the   peon's   cottage,   and 


114  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

unkempt  as  the  family  may  appear,  tlie  extraor- 
dinary variety  of  dirt  and  the  fantastic  untidiness 
of  the  huts  baffle  description  and  escape  reproduc- 
tion. Similar  spots  may  be  seen  in  any  land,  for 
every  population  has  its  wastrels,  but  in  the  far 
east  there  is  not  to  be  found  a  lower  level  of  life 
and  greater  lack  of  comfort  g-enerally,  than  that 
which  suffices  for  the  lowest  classes  in  Chile.  In  a 
country  blessed  with  a  paucity  of  noxious  reptiles 
and  insects,  where  no  beast  more  formidable  than 
the  cowardly  puma  dwells,  and  where  birds  and 
flowers  of  rare  beauty  al)ound,  it  seems  inappropri- 
ate that  man  should  dwell  in  such  domestic  squalor. 
The  male  occupants  of  these  houses  do  not,  as  a 
rule,  contribute  anything  to  the  maintenance  of  the 
family.  That  feature  of  domestic  life  is  left  exclu- 
sively to  the  women,  who  are  a  hard  working,  self- 
sacrificing,  huml)le  and  long  suffering  class.  While 
they  are  neither  honest  nor  virtuous,  their  vices  are 
due  more  to  ignorance  and  circumstances  than 
natural  tendencies,  and  their  rewards  do  not  match 
their  merits.  They  do  not  feel  the  necessity  of 
acting  with  scrupulous  honesty  at  all  times,  as  they 
are  possessed  of  the  belief  that  the  priests  will  re- 
mit all  their  sins  upon  the  payment  of  a  given  sum 
of  money.  Their  education  is  narrow  and  limited, 
and  they  have  never  been  well  instructed  in  the  vir- 
tues of  the  ten  commandments.  They  spin,  weave 
and  dye  ponchos  for  their  men  folk,  and  for  sale; 
make  blankets,  fabrics  for  clothing,  and  clay  dishes 
for  their  own  use  and  for  the  market.  They  raise 
poultry,  not  for  home  consumption,  but  that  they 
may  sell  the  fowls  and  eggs,  which  are  usually  sold 
in  advance. 


CLASSIFIED  HUSBANDMEN  115 

These  people  are  always  in  debt  to  the  well-to-do 
landowners  in  the  connnunity  where  they  live,  and 
from  whom  they  buy  cloth,  wool,  dyes,  food,  etc. 
When  eggs  are  laid  or  fowls  are  grown  they  are 
given  in  payment  for  these  articles.  One  not  fa- 
miliar with  the  customs  and  conditions  would  be 
surprised  in  traveling  through  the  country  to  find 
that  it  is  difficult  to  buy  an  egg  or  a  chicken  at  any 
of  the  ranches,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  there 
seems  to  be  a  plentiful  supply  at  every  house. 

When  in  need,  peons  buy  on  credit,  and  will  obli- 
gate anything  they  possess,  present  or  prospective, 
in  pajTiieut.  They  live  from  hand  to  mouth,  and 
seldom  have  more  than  one  day's  supply  of  food 
on  hand.  Their  wants  are  few,  they  are  easily 
satisfied  and  generally  contented.  In  the  produc- 
tion of  articles  requiring  intelligence  and  skill,  the 
women  excel  the  men.  In  different  localities  they 
produce  different  kinds  of  articles.  For  example, 
in  Linares  they  make  a  great  variety  of  beautiful 
baskets  and  curios  from  colored  horse  hair  and  fine 
straw;  in  Talcahuano,  Concepcion,  Chilian  and 
Quillota  the  country  women  devote  their  time  to  the 
production  of  pretty  and  durable  lace  called  "min- 
aque,"  which  is  made  by  hand  and  in  a  variety  of 
patterns ;  along  the  coast  country  they  make  excel- 
lent hats  from  the  dwarf  palm,  called  "olma";  in 
other  localities  they  make  baskets,  large  and  small, 
useful  and  ornamental;  they  also  make  beautiful  as 
well  as  useful  articles  from  the  horns  of  animals, 
and  of  wood,  stone  and  paper.  They  are  clever 
and  adaptive  in  all  of  their  occupations,  but  lack  in 
those  qualities  which  lead  to  independence.  Their 
favorite  position  is  sitting  on  the  ground,  and  while 


116  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

engaged  in  their  varions  occupations  they  carry  on 
a  chatty  gossip  about  their  personal  affairs,  or 
those  of  their  neighbors,  Avhich  is  usually  more  racy 
than  edifying. 

There  is  a  rustic  beauty  about  the  Chilean  women 
in  their  youth,  but  their  manner  of  living  causes 
their  beauty  to  fade  at  an  early  age,  and  at  twenty- 
five  the  majority  of  them  begin  to  look  old  and  grow 
stout  and  homely.  They  acquire  an  erect  carriage 
and  grace  of  movement  from  the  custom  of  carry- 
ing articles  of  various  kinds  upon  the  head.  They 
have  broad  hips,  well-developed  busts,  medium- 
sized  feet  and  small,  tapering  hands.  A  bright, 
smiling,  and  attractive  face,  with  sparkling  eyes, 
small  mouth,  cherry  lips  and  beautiful  teeth,  are 
some  of  the  features  of  these  peasant  women.  On 
Sundays  and  other  feast  days,  when  dressed  in 
their  quaint  and  fantastic  costumes,  in  which  bril- 
liant colors  form  a  conspicuous  feature,  they  pre- 
sent an  attractive  appearance.  They  are  polite, 
seldom  bold  and  never  intrusive.  They  are  devo- 
tees of  the  Catholic  church,  but  their  religion  is  of 
a  flexible  character.  They  often  go  from  the  church 
to  the  "cancha  de  bola"  to  dance,  drink  and  gossip, 
but  are  rarely  drunk  or  disorderly.  They  are  su- 
perstitious and  believe  in  witchcraft.  In  their 
homes  they  are  undemonstrative,  but  show  their  af- 
fection for  their  families  and  friends  by  their  serv- 
ices and  sacrifices,  and  their  considerate  attendance 
upon  the  aged  rather  than  in  expressions  of  senti- 
ment and  caresses. 

Their  love  for  their  offspring  is  a  question  that  is 
difficult  to  solve.  If  a  male  child  is  born  they  are 
pleased,  because  it  means  that  the  work  of  another 


CLASSIFIED  HUSBANDMEN  117 

peon  will  be  added  to  the  family  resources.  If  a 
girl  baby  arrives,  '4t  is  too  bad,  but  will  serve." 
In  this  and  other  ways  they  indicate  that  maternal 
love  corresponds  to  the  prospective  benefits  to  be 
derived.  If  a  child  leaves  its  home,  or  dies,  the 
parents  show  little  grief  or  sorrow.  Perhaps  their 
sorrow  is  concealed  from  view, — at  least  it  is  to  be 
hoped  that  such  is  the  case. 

The  common  drink  among  the  people  is  "mate," 
made  from  the  leaves  of  the  "yerba  mate,"  a  plant 
that  grows  in  Uraguay,  Paraguay  and  Brazil. 
Over  five  million  pounds  of  mate,  valued  at  more 
than  1,000,000  pesos,  is  imported  into  Chile  annu- 
ally. The  beverage  is  made  by  steeping  the  leaves 
in  hot  water.  It  is  drunk  from  a  mate  cup,  an  ar- 
ticle peculiar  to  the  country.  They  are  usually  the 
most  expensive  part  of  the  household  equipment. 
Many  of  those  used  by  the  better  class  of  people 
are  made  of  hammered  silver,  oddly  shaped,  curi- 
ously fashioned  and  artistically  finished.  They  are 
frequently  ornamented  with  quaint  figures,  repre- 
senting birds,  animals  or  reptiles.  Others  are 
made  of  gourds,  artistically  carved  and  ornamented 
with  silver  mountings,  while  common  gourd  cups 
serve  the  poor  people.  The  method  of  drinking 
the  mate  is  through  a  silver  tube  called  "bombilla," 
one  end  of  which  is  enlarged,  forming  a  kind  of 
perforated  ball,  which  serves  as  a  strainer,  pre- 
venting the  dregs  of  the  plant  being  drawn 
into  the  mouth.  One  of  the  curious  and  interest- 
ing sights  in  the  country  is  the  women  sitting  about 
the  little  ranchos  indulging  in  their  cups  of  mate. 

The  men  comprising  farmers  No.  1  are  more  seri- 
ous and  more  honest  than  the  peons.     Their  food 


118  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

consists  of  wlieat  and  beans.  The  wheat,  which  is 
roasted  and  ground  into  flour  with  a  stone,  is  called 
"harina  lostado,"  It  is  eaten  instead  of  bread, 
which  they  seldom  have.  When  mixed  with  water 
or  wine  it  makes  a  very  nourishing  drink,  called 
^'ulpo."  Sometimes  when  these  poor  farmer  folk 
have  a  desire  for  bread,  they  buy  a  bag  of  flour, 
make  a  quantity  of  bread  and  sell  it.  When  they 
have  disposed  of  enough  to  pay  for  the  flour,  they 
convert  the  remainder  of  the  sui3ply  into  bread  for 
home  consumption. 

From  the  families  of  this  class  of  agriculturists 
the  servants  for  the  cities  are  obtained.  The 
women  act  as  houseservants,  in  which  capacity 
they  have  no  responsibilities,  simply  performing 
such  duties  as  they  are  given  by  their  masters. 
They  have  no  initiative,  but  make  good  servants, 
when  properly  trained.  It  is  the  custom  to  keep 
everything  of  value  under  lock  and  key,  but  the 
house  servants,  especially  the  women,  are  no  more 
dishonest  than  those  of  other  countries.  The  boys 
from  the  families  in  this  class  also  go  to  the  cities, 
where  they  become  carpenters,  blacksmiths,  tailors, 
harness-makers,  or  laborers.  They  seldom  rise 
to  ownership,  or  positions  of  greater  responsibility 
than  performing  a  certain  kind  of  labor  for  specific 
wages.  As  they  become  more  proficient  in  their 
work  or  trade,  enabling  them  to  command  better 
remuneration  for  their  services,  they  invariably 
imitate  the  better  classes,  spending  more  money 
than  they  earn,  and  are  always  "atrasado"  (be- 
hind in  their  accounts). 

Few  of  the  poor  or  middle  classes  know  their 
ages.     No    certificate    is    given    of   baptism.     If   a 


CLASSIFIED  HUSBANDMEN  119 

priest  is  asked  why  tins  is  not  done,  he  will  say  that 
it  is  useless,  as  they  cannot  read.  If  it  becomes 
necessary  to  establish  the  right  to  an  inheritance, 
the  church  record  is  examined,  provided  that  the 
person  whose  age  is  to  be  ascertained  knows  where 
he  was  baptized,  and  that  the  church  register  is  in 
existence. 

LA.KD  OWNER  NO.  2. 

Land  Owner  No.  2  possesses  more  land  than  No. 
1,  but  his  holdings  are  very  small.  He  owns  a  cart, 
a  few  yoke  of  oxen,  some  cows,  sheep,  hogs  and 
poultry.  He  freights  grain,  flour,  and  charcoal  for 
others  from  haciendas  to  the  mills  or  railway  sta- 
tions, thereby  adding  to  his  income.  The  surplus 
from  his  earnings  he  prudently  invests  in  property. 
These  farmers  are,  as  a  rule,  provident,  having 
always  food  supplies  in  their  houses,  yet  they  sel- 
dom lift  their  families  out  of  the  rut  of  poverty. 
Most  members  of  the  family,  including  the  head 
of  the  house,  either  go  barefooted  or  wear  only 
rawhide  sandals  upon  their  feet  the  year  round,  ex- 
cept Sundays,  feast  days  and  special  occasions.  It 
is  only  the  women  who  are  permitted  to  indulge 
frequently  in  the  luxury  of  shoes  and  clean  gowns. 
The  sons  w^ork  with  the  father  and  not  as  peons  for 
others.  These  people  associate  with  Farmers  No. 
1,  and  even  with  the  peons  as  equals.  Not,  how- 
ever, without  prideful  reflection,  for  they  consider 
themselves  above  their  poorer  neighbors,  although 
they  do  not  say  so.  They  are  not  admitted  to  the 
society  of  Land  Owner  No.  3,  or  the  hacendados, 
although  they  have  many  interests  in  common  and 
commercial  relations  with  those  classes.    If  you  are 


120  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

his  guest  lie  will  serve  you  wine  or  water  in  a  glass 
tumbler,  but  he  never  uses  such  an  article  himself, 
and  perhaps  you  will  be  given  a  Imife  and  fork  with 
which  to  eat  j^our  food.  These  middle  class 
farmers  constitute  the  best  element  in  Chile.  They 
work  honestly  to  gain  a  livelihood,  and  ask  no 
favors  from  others.  They  are  too  poor  to  engage 
in  politics. 

A  peculiar  feature  of  the  life  of  this  class  of  peo- 
ple is  the  methods  they  resort  to  to  save  money  and 
increase  their  possessions.  They  live  solely  upon 
the  products  of  their  little  farms,  and  seldom  eat 
what  they  can  sell.  They  make  bread,  but  eat  very 
little  of  it,  the  family  consumption  being  limited  to 
the  equivalent  of  the  profits  on  that  which  is  sold. 
They  keep  liquors  in  the  house,  but  to  sell.  If  an 
animal  is  slaughtered,  some  kind  of  a  function  is 
arranged,  to  which  the  neighbors  are  invited  and 
the  meat  disposed  of  in  a  feast,  their  guests  being 
served  as  long  as  they  have  money  with  which  to 
buy.  If  a  woman  desires  some  article  of  dress  or 
adornment,  and  has  not  the  money  with  which  to 
purchase  it,  she  gives  a  feast.  She  will  go  to  a 
neighbor  who  has  a  hog  and  negotiate  for  the  ani- 
mal on  credit:  she  also  purchases  an  "arroba" 
(ten  gallons)  of  "chiclia,"  for  which  she  gives  her 
])romise  to  pay,  the  credit  extending  until  the 
respective  articles  are  disposed  of.  The  hog, 
''chancha,"  is  slaughtered,  and  the  feast  is  an- 
nounced. There  is  music  and  a  number  of  women 
who  dance  and  sing  are  there  as  a  special  attrac- 
tion. These  feasts  always  attract  a  crowd  and 
by  the  time  the  chancha  and  the  chicha  are  disposed 
of,  the  woman  conducting  the  affair  has  made  suf- 


CLASSIFIED  HUSBANDMEN  121 

ficient  profit  to  pay  her  indebtedness  and  to  pur- 
chase the  desired  article. 

LAND  OWNER  NO.  3. 

The  transition  of  Land  Owners  No.  3,  from  what  is 
recognized  as  the  inferior  classes,  to  respectable 
citizens  is  generally  due  to  the  accumulation  of 
property.  Wealth  constitutes  recognized  citizen- 
ship, and  when  obtained,  they  think  that  the  right 
of  sovereignty  is  theirs  in  the  fullest  degree.  This 
transition  often  carries  with  it  the  idea  that  all  law 
and  government  should  be  administered  by  them. 
Fortunately  their  inexperience  and  lack  of  education 
seldom  permits  them  to  rule  higher  than  municipal 
legislation,  or  perhaps  sub-delegate  of  a  district. 
The  phlegmatic  temperament  of  this  class  of  Chile- 
nos  is  universal.  If  emotions  ever  stir  the  depths 
of  their  souls  they  manage  to  conceal  the  fact  by  an 
apparent  calm  composure. 

Most  of  them  are  illiterate,  but  to  their  credit 
they  have  in  recent  years  been  endeavoring  to  se- 
cure for  their  children  better  education  than  that 
afforded  them.  The  educational  facilities  of  the 
country  are  not  good,  but  the  majority  of  the  chil- 
dren of  this  class  of  farmers  secure  sufficient  techni- 
cal training  in  the  schools  to  suffice  for  their  simple 
lives.  They  are  orderly,  hard  working  people,  and! 
generally  honest,  as  they  interpret  the  meaning  of 
the  term.  The  Chilean  characteristic  of  sticking 
tenaciously  to  custom  and  tradition  is  exemplified  in 
the  home  life  of  these  people.  Their  condition  is 
little  better  or  above  that  of  Land  Owners  No.  1  and 
2.  From  choice,  rather  than  necessity,  they  follow 
the   custom   of   their   Indian   ancestors   by    sitting 


122  PEOGRESSIVE  CHILE 

upon  the  gToiind,  a  stone  or  a  billet  of  wood ;  the  food 
for  the  family  is  served  from  one  dish,  there  being  as 
many  spoons  as  persons  to  be  served.  The  materi- 
als which  enter  into  the  composition  of  the  food  of 
these  farmer  folk  consisting  of  wheat,  corn,  beans, 
fruit,  pepper,  etc.,  are  ground  between  stones.  In 
fact  the  grinding  stones  are  the  most  useful  utensils 
in  the  equipment  of  the  kitchen.  They  consist  of 
one  large  flat  stone  with  a  smooth  surface,  and  a 
smaller  one,  oval  shaped.  The  material  is  placed 
upon  the  large  stone,  and  the  other  in  the  hand  of 
the  operator  is  used  to  crush  and  grind  the  grain 
or  dried  vegetables  to  the  proper  consistency.  This 
work  is  always  done  by  the  women.  In  the  kitchen 
may  be  found  a  few  pots,  clay  dishes,  tin  cups, 
wooden  spoons  and  quantities  of  dirt.  Occupying 
the  kitchen,  and  apparently  upon  the  most  intimate 
terms  with  members  of  tlie  family  are  pigs,  goats, 
dogs,  and  chickens.  If  there  are  guests  in  the 
house,  food  is  served  in  the  dining  room  with  some 
show  of  formality,  but  when  the  family  is  alone,  the 
food  is  served  in  one  dish  from  which  the  members 
help  themselves  with  spoons  until  the  supply  is  ex- 
hausted. It  is  then  refilled  with  some  other  kind 
of  food  and  the  meal  continues  until  all  are  satisfied. 
"With  a  change  of  food  the  same  dish  and  spoons  are 
used  without  being  washed.  Tea  and  cotfee  are 
sometimes  served  when  strangers  are  present,  but 
when  the  family  is  alone,  mate  only  is  served  as  a 
drink,  with  their  meals.  The  mate  cup  is  filled  and 
passed  to  the  head  of  the  house  who  drinks  the  con- 
tents througli  a  ''bombilla."  Tlie  cup  is  filled 
again  and  again,  each  member  of  the  family  drink- 
ing out  of  tlie  same  vessel  and  through  the  same 


CLASSIFIED  HUSBANDMEN  123 

bombilla.  When  there  are  no  guests  in  the  house 
the  servants  sometimes  form  part  of  the  family 
group,  eating  out  of  the  same  pot,  and  having  their 
turn  at  the  mate  through  the  family  bombilla. 

The  tile-roofed  adobe  houses  inhaliited  by  this 
class  of  farmers  are  very  jjhvin.  They  are  devoid 
of  ornamentation  within  or  without,  and  there  is 
seldom  a  tree  or  shrub  to  relieve  the  dreary  mo- 
notony of  the  surroundings.  There  are  no  windows 
in  these  places  of  abode,  and  the  floor  is  either  dirt 
or  common  brick.  The  furniture  consists  of  beds, 
one  or  two  home-made  tables,  and  a  few  chairs  of 
the  commonest  kind. 

If  a.  person  of  the  better  class  visits  the  home  of 
one  of  these  Chilean  farmers,  he  must  do  most  of 
the  talking,  and  it  will  be  necessary  to  limit  the 
conversation  to  subjects  pertaining  to  the  church, 
crops,  animals,  gossip,  or  questions  relating  to  their 
districts.  They  know  little  of  the  great  world  lying 
beyond  the  narrow  horizon  of  their  local  environ- 
ments. The  methods  employed  by  this  class  of 
fanners  in  cultivating  the  soil  are  crude  and  primi- 
tive. The  wooden  plow  used  by  the  Spaniards  and 
Greeks  a  thousand  years  ago,  furnishes  the  model 
for  the  implement  used  by  these  people  in  this 
twentieth  century.  It  is  made  by  mortising  one 
piece  of  a  small  tree  trunk  into  another,  at  an  angle 
of  about  forty-five  degrees.  A  piece  of  iron  is  usu- 
ally fastened  over  the  point  of  the  portion  that  is  in- 
tended to  stir  the  ground.  Oxen,  attached  by  a 
wooden  yoke  fastened  to  their  horns  with  rawhide 
thongs,  are  employed  in  drawing  the  plows.  A  stick 
serves  as  a  handle,  and  holding  on  to  the  crude  imple- 
ment with  one  hand,  the  other  used  in  directing  the 


124  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

oxen,  the  plowman  manages  to  scratch  the  ground, 
but  is  never  able  to  stir  the  soil  to  any  depth.  When 
the  plowing  is  done  and  the  grain  planted  or  sown, 
some  branches  of  trees  serve  as  a  drag  for  covering 
it.  Forks  for  handling  grain  and  hay  are  made  from 
branches  of  trees. 

Tlie  grain  is  harvested  with  reap  hooks,  and  the 
threshing  is  done  with  animals.  The  wheat  or  bar- 
ley is  placed  upon  the  ground  within  a  circular  en- 
closure. A  number  of  animals,  usually  young 
mares  from  the  farm,  are  turned  into  the  enclosure, 
and  one  or  more  men  mounted  upon  strong  horses, 
follow  them  around,  shouting,  whipping  and  pursu- 
ing them  over  the  grain  until  the  tramping  of  hoofs 
has  crushed  the  grain  from  the  straw.  Then  comes 
the  process  of  separating  the  chaff  from  the  grain. 
This,  as  are  all  other  methods  employed  in  cultivat- 
ing and  preparing  products  of  the  farm  for  market, 
is  curious  and  primitive.  The  wheat  and  chaff  are 
placed  in  baskets,  which  men  hold  in  their  hands 
above  their  heads  allowing  the  contents  to  empty 
slowly.  As  it  falls  the  chaff  and  refuse  are  carried 
to  one  side  by  the  wind,  leaving  the  grain,  which  is 
heavier  and  which  falls  directly  to  the  ground,  clean 
and  ready  for  the  market. 

Nearly  all  the  land  occupied  and  cultivated  by 
this  class  of  farmers  is  what  is  known  as  ''campo 
de  rulo"  (dry  hill  land),  which  constitutes  the 
greater  part  of  agricultural  Chile.  The  only  mois- 
ture it  has  is  from  the  three  or  four  months'  rain- 
fall from  June  to  October.  For  about  half  the  year 
these  hill  lands  are  brown,  sear  and  desolate  look- 
ing, but  in  the  autumn,  winter  and  spring,  they  are 
covered  with  a  mantle  of  rich  verdure,  presenting  a 


CLASSIFIED  HUSBANDMEN  125 

landscape  scene  that  is  attractive  and  prepossess- 
ing. During  the  rainy  season  the  mud  is  deep, 
roads  are  often  impassable,  bridges  are  carried 
away  by  the  swift  current  of  the  streams  and  there 
is  little  communication  between  different  communi- 
ties or  between  country  and  city. 

The  theory  of  these  hill  farmers  is  to  get  as  much 
out  of  the  soil  as  possible,  without  expense.     The 
land  is  never  fertilized,  and  crops  are  grown  alter- 
nate years.     The  plowing  is  done  after  the  rains  set 
in  in  the  autumn,  and  the  soil  being  clay,  remains 
very   hard   and   lumpy.     This   plowed  land,   called 
"barbecho,"  is  left  over  the  winter,  the  rains  hav- 
ing the  effect  of  pulverizing  and  putting  it  in  condi- 
tion for  the  sowing  or  planting  for  the  next  season. 
Oxen  are  used  for  plowing,  and  it  is  a  novel  sight  to 
see  a  large  number  of  those  slow,  plodding  beasts 
winding  about  the  hills  dragging  the  crude  plows. 
Fifty  yoke  of  oxen  are  often  engaged  in  plowing 
on  one  hacienda.     This  method  of  cultivating  is  em- 
ployed until  the  soil  becomes  so  worn  that  it  will  not 
jn-ocluce  a  satisfactory  crop.     It  is  then  let  stand 
for  several  years  until  nature  rejuvenates  it,  and  it 
is  again  put  into  service.     The  grain  is  harvested 
by  hand,  and  brought  from  the  hills  in  primitive 
wooden  carts,   or  upon   the  heads   of  peons.     The 
general  appearance  of  the  soil  would  indicate  that 
this  hill  land  is  valueless  for  agricultural  purposes, 
but  it  produces  annually  a  large  per  cent,  of  the 
agricultural  products  of  the  country,  besides  main- 
taining many  horses,  cattle  and  sheep. 

The  farmers  of  this  class  live  in  a  narrow  world. 
The  majority  of  them  have  never  been  out  of  the 
province  in  which  they  were  born  and  many  of  them 


126  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

never  saw  a  railway  train ;  tliey  know  the  villages  in 
their  vicinity,  and  perhaps  the  provincial  capital, 
but  one  who  has  seen  Santiago,  the  national  capi- 
tal, is  the  rare  exception.  The  customs  prevailing 
in  other  countries,  or  what  is  going  on  in  the  great 
world,  are  of  little  consequence  to  them;  they  are 
interested  only  in  what  they  are  doing.  Even  if 
one  can  read,  he  seldom  subscribes  for  a  newspaper, 
as  that  is  considered  a  useless  expenditure. 

The  men  engage  only  in  the  larger  affairs  of  the 
business  of  the  family,  such  as  marketing  the  ani- 
mals and  the  grain  raised  on  the  farm.  The  small 
trade  in  chicha,  liquors,  poultry,  etc.,  is  attended  to 
by  the  women.  In  nearly  every  house  is  kept  a  sup- 
pi}'  of  such  articles  as  may  be  required  by  the  peons. 
In  the  sale  of  these,  the  money  that  is  paid  out  by 
the  farmer,  in  wages,  comes  back  in  small  amounts, 
and  with  interest.  The  profit  made  on  this  small 
mercantile  business,  in  the  sale  of  sugar,  mate,  chi- 
cha, etc.,  pays  for  the  articles  of  the  same  class 
consumed  by  the  farmer's  family.  In  these  transac- 
tions they  never  refuse  credit  to  anyone,  but 
l)olitely  say  they  have  not  the  article  called  for,  not- 
withstanding the  fact  that  it  may  be  in  plain  view  of 
the  would-be  purchaser,  or  sold  to  another  before 
his  eyes.  They  understand  each  other  and  their 
method  of  dealing  with  delinquent  customers  fur- 
nishes an  example  that  might  be  emulated  with  profit 
by  more  progressive  and  up-to-date  tradesmen. 

These  farmers  are  received  at  the  haciendas,  not 
exactly  as  equals,  but  because  of  a  money  consid- 
eration. They  have  land,  stock,  and  usually  money 
in  the  bank.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  many 
of  them  have  a  competency,  they  resort  to  a  method 


CLASSIFIED  HUSBANDMEN  127 

of  ecoiioiny  that  is  al)solute  ponuriousness, — stiugi- 
ness  personified.  Tliey  never  visit  their  friends,  or 
entertain  their  neighbors.  They  never  keep  a  coach, 
for  two  reasons,  one  being  that  where  they  reside, 
and  places  to  where  they  journey,  there  are  no  coach 
roads,  and  for  the  more  general  reason  that  they 
never  spend  money  for  snch  an  unnecessary  luxury. 
The  men  always  ride  horseback,  and  when  the 
women  go  away  from  home,  which  is  seldom,  they 
also  travel  on  horseback.  Few  of  them  possess 
sidesaddles,  and  the  common  custom  is  for  them  to 
go  ''en  anca,"  sitting  upon  a  cloth  spread  upon  the 
back  of  the  horse,  behind  the  saddle  occupied  by  the 
man.  There  is  still  another  class  of  dry  land,  hill 
farmers,  who  own  large  tracts  of  land,  and  farm 
upon  a  large  scale.  In  sandy  or  loam  soil  they  em- 
ploy modern  machinery  and  implements.  This  class 
often  becomes  rich,  in  which  case  they  invariably 
move  to  the  provincial  cities  and  work  their  estates 
through  an  "administrador."  These  hill  fanners 
are  autocrats  in  their  respective  communities;  not 
in  the  same  despotic  manner  as  the  owners  of  the 
large  irrigated  estates,  for  the  inquilinos  and  peons 
of  the  hills  are  more  independent,  are  treated  with 
greater  consideration,  and  are  more  nearly  on  an 
equality  than  is  the  case  on  the  great  hacienda. 

HACIENDAS   AND    HACENDADOS. 

In  the  fertile  valleys,  through  which  flow  the 
rivers  of  Chile,  are  many  magnificent  estates,  some 
of  them  including  thousands  of  acres  of  productive 
land.  Upon  an  eminence  in  the  midst  of  broad 
acres,  of  golden  grain,  waving  corn  and  verdant  pas- 
tures, all  framed  with  avenues  of  stately  alemos. 


128  PKOGRESSIVE  CHILE 

stands  the  splendid  residence  of  the  owner,  over- 
looking the  picturesque  and  pastoral  scene.  The 
majority  of  these  country  mansions  are  built  upon 
the  same  general  plan,  varying  only  in  size  and 
ornamental  elaboration.  They  represent  a  letter  H 
in  form,  with  a  front  entrance  in  the  middle  of  the 
bar  connecting  the  main  lines  of  the  letter,  the  draw- 
ing-room upon  one  side  and  the  dining-room  on  the 
other.  A  wide,  roomy  corridor  leads  from  the  main 
entrance  in  front  to  the  beautiful  patio,  upon  either 
side  of  which  is  arranged  the  sleeping  apartments. 
These  residences  are  almost  invariably  well  fur- 
nished and  finished  with  artistic  interior  decora- 
tions. Some  of  them  include  rare  old  paintings  and 
splendid  specimens  of  wood  carving.  The  drawing- 
room  and  dining-room  usually  contain  the  best  of 
the  furniture  and  decorations,  as  those  are  the  por- 
tions of  the  house  most  occupied  by  guests.  There 
is  an  absence  of  fireplaces  and  stoves,  due  to  the 
mild  climate.  The  house  is  surrounded  by  well-kept 
parks  and  gardens  containing  rare  trees,  shrubs  and 
flowers.  There  is  a  peaceful  harmony  in  the  beauty 
of  the  surroundings  and  everything  in  the  environ- 
ment is  suggestive  of  comfort  and  luxury. 

The  hacienda  constitutes  a  small  empire,  with 
various  executive  and  administrative  branches. 
The  territorial  limits  are  usually  defined  by  walls 
made  of  loose  piled  stones  or  adobes.  The  irri- 
gated portions  are  divided  into  potreros  (fields),  of 
from  one  hundred  to  two  hundred  acres  each,  the 
dividing  lines  being  indicated  by  rows  of  growing 
trees,  usually  poplar,  or  alemos,  that  grow  straight 
and  tall,  and  which  not  only  add  to  the  beauty  of  the 
landscape,  but  also  furnish  shade  for  the  animals 


CLASSIFIED  HUSBANDMEN  129 

in  tlie  pastures.  The  liill  lands  are  divided  into 
larger  sections,  frequently  as  much  as  one  thousand 
acres  constituting  one  pasture  field  or  range.  These 
potreros  are  enclosed  with  thorned  hedges,  from  the 
espino  which  grows  abundantly  in  the  low  lands. 
Irrigating  canals  carry  water  from  the  hill  streams 
to  the  cultivated  fields  and  the  pasture  land,  where 
clover,  alfalfa,  and  other  grasses  grow  prodigiously 
in  the  rich  loam  soil. 

Roads  flanked  with  graceful  trees  lead  out  from 
the  residence  and  from  the  corrals  to  various  parts 
of  the  property.  A  photographic  view  of  one  of 
these  country  homes  needs  only  a  few  touches  of  the 
artist's  brush  to  make  it  an  idyl.  A  home  glimpse 
in  Chile,  even  on  an  hacienda,  is  no  exception.  Sun-"^ 
light  through  a  camera  glorifies  vistas  and  ennobles 
foliage';  it  promotes  stucco  and  plaster  to  marble^ 
and  gives  grace  and  beauty  to  commonplace  things. "^^ 
The  lumbering  teams  of  oxen  and  the  huge  two- 
wheeled  carts  add  to  the  picturesque  placidity  of  the 
scene  which  presents  an  appearance  of  perpetual 
summer  and  glorious  afternoon.  But  the  photo- 
graph says  nothing,  and  it  is  well  for  the  chronicler 
to  omit  any  mention  of  the  dust  through  which  the 
carts  creak  and  groan  at  harvest  time,  in  a  country 
where  rain  falls  only  between  May  and  Septem- 
ber. 

The  servants  on  a  large  hacienda  consist  of  an 
administrador,  a  capataz  (sub-manager),  various 
mayordomos,  vaqueros  (cowboys),  shepherds  and  a 
troop  of  peons.  The  administrador,  or  manager,  is 
the  responsible  executive  head,  and  has  entire 
charge  of  the  farm.  He  receives  orders  only  from 
the  proprietor.     He  suggests  to  the  owner  the  work 


130  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

and  iiuprovements  necessary,  and  wlien  his  sugges- 
tions are  approved  he  gives  orders  to  his  subordi- 
nates to  execute  the  plan ;  he  receives  from  the  may- 
ordomos  accounts  of  the  work  done  and  wages  earned, 
pays  employes,  etc.  It  is  also  the  business  of  the 
manager  to  dispose  of  the  animals  raised  on  the  farm, 
when  ready  for  market.  These  sales  are  usually 
made  at  auction  at  the  most  convenient  railway  sta- 
tion or  shipping  point.  Sometimes  the  sales  amount 
to  as  much  as  fifty  thousand  pesos  in  one  day.  The 
owner  or  his  representatives  are  always  present,  and 
animals  are  never  sold  for  less  than  they  are  actually 
worth. 

The  service  of  an  hacienda  manager  consists  in 
whatever  the  owner  may  order;  he  passes  most  of 
his  days  on  horseback,  as  do  the  other  servants, 
except  the  peons.  The  pay  of  this  important  per- 
sonage is  three  hundred  pesos,  equal  to  one  hundred 
dollars  United  States  currency,  a  year.  In  addition 
to  this  meager  money  compensation  he  has  the  use 
of  ten  acres  of  dry  land,  suitable  for  growing 
wheat,  six  or  eight  acres  of  chacra,  or  vegetable  pro- 
ducing land,  and  pasture  for  fifteen  to  twenty  ani- 
mals. Ten  horses  of  the  hacienda  are  usually  set 
apart  for  his  exclusive  use. 

The  capataz  occupies  a  position  next  in  impor- 
tance to  the  manager;  his  business  is  to  ride  over 
the  farm  daily,  and  make  reports  and  suggestions 
to  the  manager.  It  is  also  the  dutv  of  this  function- 
ary  to  impound  all  animals  not  belonging  to  the 
estate  found  in  the  potreros.  A  fine  of  so  much  per 
head  is  assessed  against  all  such  animals,  and  the 
owner  is  required  to  pay  the  amount  before  they  are 
released. 


CLASSIFIED  HUSBANDMEN  131 

Vaqueros,  who  are  under  the  direction  of  a  mana- 
ger, have  certain  fields  and  animals  under  their 
charge.  Each  is  held  responsible  for  the  animals 
under  his  care.  A  daily  count  is  made,  and  if  any 
are  missing  the  vaquero  is  sent  in  search  of  them. 
The  vaquero  is  the  cowboy  of  South  America,  and 
represents  a  type  peculiar  to  the  country. 

His  leggins  usually  consist  of  untanned  goat  skin, 
worn  in  the  natural  form  and  without  attempt  to 
make  them  confonn  to  the  shape  of  the  legs.  They 
not  infrequently  differ  in  color  and  marking,  caus- 
ing the  wearer  to  present  a  grotesque  appearance. 
He  also  wears  immense  spurs  and  other  articles  cor- 
respondingly fantastic,  not  the  least  conspicuous  of 
which  is  his  hat,  an  enormous  cone-shaped  sombrero 
made  of  felt  and  embroidered  in  fancy  colors.  His 
lasso  of  plaited  rawhide,  loosely  coiled  in  two-foot 
circles,  rests  upon  the  back  of  his  horse.  These 
servants  on  the  hacienda  receive  as  compensation 
fifty  pesos  in  cash  annually,  the  use  of  two  acres  of 
chacra,  four  acres  of  wheat-growing  land,  and  pas- 
ture for  six  or  eight  animals. 

For  each  department  of  labor  on  these  properties, 
including  canals,  corrals,  repairs,  storehouse,  direc- 
tion of  peons,  etc.,  there  is  a  mayordomo,  or  fore- 
man. Their  pay  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  va- 
queros. The  proprietor  furnishes  horses  but  not 
saddles  for  all  of  his  employes,  except  the  peons. 

''Ovejeros"  (shepherds),  connected  with  these 
estates  live  in  the  hills  and  work  on  contract.  They 
receive  twenty-five  centavos  for  each  lamb  born,  or 
one-third  of  the  lambs.  In  case  one  receives  a  per 
cent,  of  the  lambs  as  compensation  for  his  labor,  he 
is  compelled  to  sell  them  to  his  master  for  one  peso 


132  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

eacli.  Eacli  sliepliercl  lias  in  his  care  from  five  hun- 
dred to  one  thousand  sheep. 
>y  ''Inquilinos,"  or  farm  tenants,  comprise  the  ser- 
vants living  on  the  farm.  They  must  work  when 
ordered  or  furnish  someone  to  lahor  in  their  stead. 
The  head  of  each  of  the  families  is  given  an  allow- 
ance of  four  acres  of  wheat-growing  land,  and  pas- 
ture for  six  animals;  they  receive  no  cash  compen- 
sation. The  peons  on  the  hacienda  are  not  given 
land  and  pasturage  for  animals,  but  are  furnished 
with  a  daily  ration  of  food.  The  owners  of  estates 
furnish  houses  for  their  servants,  free  of  rent. 

The  owners  of  the  large,  irrigated  and  well- 
equipped  haciendas  constitute  the  wealthiest,  most 
cultured  and  aristocratic  class  in  Chile.  Presi- 
dents, senators  and  congressmen  are  elected  from 
this  class,  and  ministers,  judges,  admirals  and  gen- 
erals are  selected  from  the  landed  gentry.  Promi- 
nent and  influential  professional  and  business  men 
rely  upon  their  estates  for  both  pleasure  and  profit. 
The  owners  live  upon  their  haciendas  a  portion  of 
the  year,  but  their  homes  are  in  the  cities,  most  of 
them  in  Santiago,  where  they  live  in  mansions  and 
s]iend  with  lavish  hand  the  income  from  their 
estates.  The  majority  of  them  spend  more  than 
thoir  income  and  as  a  result  the  heavily  capitalized 
mortgage  bank  of  Santiago  has  its  octopus-like  hand 
upon  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  beautiful  and  valuable 
country  estates  in  Chile.  The  extravagance  of  the 
wealthy  class  in  the  Republic  is  cause  for  comment, 
and  a  surprise  to  most  foreigners.  Their  prod- 
igality furnishes  a  ruinous  example  to  the  middle 
classes,  who  try  to  emulate  them,  producing  thereby 
a  cheap,  imitative  kind  of  aristocracy.     Most  of  them 


CLASSIFIED  HUSBANDMEN  133 

belong  to  old  and  influential  families  who  inherited 
their  fortunes  and  names  from  pioneer  colonists. 
Some,  however,  are  parvenu  aristocrats  who  have 
gained  access  to  the  exclusive  social  circles  by  means 
of  money,  a  position  which  from  lack  of  education 
and  breeding  they  are  not  qualified  to  maintain. 

Large  landowners  give  little  time  to  the  cultiva- 
tion of  their  estates,  and  as  a  result  tlie  haciendas 
never  produce  to  their  full  capacity.  The  chief  oc- 
cupation of  the  owners  is  a  calculation  of  the  prob- 
able income,  with  the  application  of  as  little  capital 
and  labor  as  possible  on  the  property. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  Chile  owns  the 
richest  and  most  extensive  nitrate  fields  and  giiano 
deposits  in  the  world,  and  that  thousands  of  tons  of 
fertilizing  material  are  exported  annually  to  other 
countries,  to  enrich  depleted  soil,  little  or  none  of  this 
valuable  re-creative  agency  is  utilized  to  rejuvenate 
the  sterile  soil  of  the  worn  hill  farms  of  the  Repub- 
lic. They  refuse  to  return  to  the  soil  by  artificial 
means  that  which  is  annually  drawn  from  it  in  the 
production  of  crops,  and  as  a  result  much  valuable 
land  has  lapsed  into  disuse,  being  considered  sterile 
and  valueless  because  its  producing  quality  has  been 
exhausted.  Under  existing  circumstances  the  farm- 
er's expenses  are  heavy  and  certain  and  his  income 
decreasing  and  uncertain.  The  result  is  that  the 
handsome  estates  are  fast  falling  under  the  bane 
of  mortgages,  the  payment  of  the  interest  on  which 
is  sapping  the  life  of  the  soil.  Economy  is  not  one 
of  the  ruling  characteristics  of  the  Chileno;  social 
and  political  prestige  must  be  maintained,  even  if 
the  inevitable  result  is  financial  ruin. 

Mortgages  will  not  permit  of  a  disunion  of  the 


134  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

estates  they  cover,  or  selling  of  a  portion  of  the 
land  with  which  to  pay  interest,  and  when  the  owner 
is  unable  to  longer  meet  his  obligations  the  hacienda 
is  sold  at  auction.  The  family  then  retires  to  a  life 
of  seclusion,  and  thereafter  live  upon  a  very  meager 
income.  There  is  no  moral;  remembering  their 
former  achievements  and  the  splendor  of  past  life, 
they  indulge  in  no  regret  over  present  conditions. 
These  families  do  not  as  a  rule,  however,  belong  to 
the  best  blood  of  Chile.  They  generally  consist  of 
those  who  go  from  country  to  the  city  and  whose 
vanity  leads  them  into  unwonted  extravagance. 

The  artificial  and  realistic  phases  of  social  life 
among  the  above  mentioned  classes  furnish  some 
sharp  and  well-defined  contrasts.  The  phase  most 
commonly  known,  and  the  one  invariably  presented 
to  the  world,  is  the  artificial,  with  stage  eifects  and 
deceptive  lights;  the  other  is  the  real, — the  every- 
day home  life,  where  the  natural  characteristics  of 
the  actors  are  presented.  In  the  home,  all  show, 
pomi)  and  exhibition  can  be  safely  discarded ;  no 
stage  eifects  are  necessary.  A  ''peep"  into  the 
home  life  of  some  of  these  families  will  reveal  the 
female  members  sitting  in  groups  upon  low  stools,  or 
on  the  floor,  around  a  "bracero,"  charcoal  fire,  the 
servants  squatting  in  close  proximity,  discussing  in 
a  familiar  way  the  latest  social  triumphs  or  the 
day's  hidden  economies. 

Another  striking  contrast  in  the  home  life  is  the 
different  characteristics  possessed  by  the  men  and 
women.  The  women  are  domestic  by  nature,  pa- 
tient to  a  degree,  long  suffering,  good  mothers  and 
loyal  wives.  They  are  content  with  little,  and 
either  by  inheritance  or  through  generations  of  ex- 


CLASSIFIED  HUSBANDMEN  135 

perience  and  training  they  do  not  expect  mncli  from 
their  lords  and  masters.  Their  education,  which  is 
generally  secured  in  the  parochial  schools,  is  in- 
fluenced by  religious  prejudice.  They  manifest  little 
interest  in  politics  or  world  affairs,  and  a  profes- 
sional career  is  not  to  be  thought  of  by  a  Chilena. 
'Tis  considered  more  respectable  for  a  woman  to 
live  proudly  in  abject  poverty  than  to  earn  a  liveli- 
hood in  a  profession  or  commercial  occupation. 
Many  of  the  Chilean  sefioritas  possess  great  beauty, 
are  graceful  and  vivacious.  They  know  the  force 
and  effect  of  flattery,  and  are  artists  in  the  use  of 
that  dangerous  weapon  of  society.  They  have 
natural  talent  for  languages,  usually  speak  French 
and  have  some  knowledge  of  English,  and  their  own 
language  they  use  with  consummate  skill. 

The  sons  in  the  families  of  the  better  class  are 
often  educated  in  the  belief  that  labor  is  degrading, 
and  encouraged  to  lead  lives  of  indolence.  Instead 
of  being  taught  that  labor  is  honorable,  that  the 
gods  sell  everything  to  those  who  work;  that  the 
most  useless  and  uninteresting  members  of  society 
in  this  busy  world  are  the  drones;  that  intelligent 
industry  is  the  chief  factor  in  modern  civilization; 
that  honest  effort  is  the  advance  guard  of  commer- 
cial and  industrial  progress,  the  youth  of  Chile  is 
encouraged  in  the  belief  that  it  is  honorable  and 
manly  to  rely  upon  paternal  dependence.  Their 
education  and  youthful  training  too  often  lead  them 
into  the  erroneous  idea  that  business  is  drudgery, 
and  that  discipline  of  mind  and  will  are  hardships 
to  be  endured  only  by  the  servants  and  poor  classes. 

The  men  who  constitute  the  wealthy  class  in  Chile 
contrast  sharply  in  characteristics  with  the  women 


136  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

in  the  same  social  cast.  They  have  an  agreeable, 
dignified  manner  and  polite  address.  Intellectually 
keen,  they  are  quick  to  gras]^  a  theory  and  clever 
in  presenting  it.  Super-sensitive,  they  are  quick  to 
take  offense,  but  will  keep  a  smiling  countenance,  a 
polite,  unruffled  exterior,  and  even  manifest  a  liking 
for  people  whom  they  inwardly  detest.  They  are 
drawn  together  by  business  and  political  interests 
and  whenever  their  interests  conflict,  enmity  and 
even  hatred  are  the  result.  This  is  carried  to  such 
extent  that  in  the  cities  the  families  of  the  managers 
or  heads  of  competing  commercial  houses  or  busi- 
ness firms  will  not  associate  with  each  other,  and 
friendship  between  two  Chilean  gentlemen  engaged 
in  oi)position  business  is  the  rare  exception.  Politi- 
cal opponents  are  enemies  so  long  as  their  interests 
clash. 

It  is  generally  among  the  hacendados  that  politi- 
cal schemes,  resulting  in  combinations  of  far-reach- 
ing consequence,  have  their  origin.  When  a  candi- 
date aspires  to  an  elective  office,  he  makes  his  wants 
known  to  the  managers  of  the  party  to  which  he 
belongs,  and  assures  them  of  his  willingness  to  pay 
the  required  sum  to  carry  the  election.  After  se- 
curing the  nomination  the  candidate  puts  himself 
in  communication  with  the  influential  men  of  his 
party  in  the  province  in  which  he  stands  for  elec- 
tion. Among  these  men  he  distributes  the  amount 
he  is  willing  to  pay  for  the  office.  These  confidants 
distribute  the  fund  among  their  friends,  who  in  turn 
re-distribute  it,  each  retaining  as  it  passes  through 
liis  hands  what  he  believes  is  the  value  of  his  services. 
There  is  never  any  accounting,  and  no  questions 
are   asked.     On   election  day,  which   is   a  general 


CLASSIFIED  HUSBANDMEN  137 

feast    and    field    day    for    the    peons,    each    candi- 
date has  friends  and  money  representing  him  at  the 
various  voting  phices.     The  ])eons  have  no  political 
faith  or  party,  prohably  do  not  know,  much  less  care, 
for  what  the  election  is  being  held.     Their  votes  are 
for  sale,  either  publicly  or  privately,  to  the  highest 
bidder.     Those  from  the  same  farm,  district  or  vil- 
lage, usually  band  together,  one  of  the  number  act- 
ing  as   spokesman.     When   the   polls   are  declared 
open  the  inspectors  of  registration  take  their  places 
behind  the  ballot  box,  and  the  bidding  for  the  pur- 
chase of  votes  begins.     The  agent  of  one  candidate 
approaches   a  group  of  peons   and  asks   for  their 
votes,  the  spokesman  for  the  crowd  asking  in  turn 
what  is  bid  for  their  sutfrages.     After  some  bar- 
gaining an  offer  is  made.     Taking  that  as  a  basis, 
negotiations  are  then  opened  by  a  representative  of 
the   peons   with  the   agent   for   another  candidate. 
When  convinced  that  they  cannot  secure  more  the 
peons  close  with  the  highest  bidder,  and  march  in 
single  file  to  the  voting  jilace.     One  by  one  their 
names  are  called,  and  as  their  right  to  vote  is  ad- 
mitted, the  agent  of  the  candidate  making  the  pur- 
chase deposits  the  vote.     After  the  voting  is  com- 
pleted according  to  agreement,  the  peons  receive  the 
money  in  the  presence  of  the  inspectors,  politicians 
and  other  voters.     There  is  no  attempt  at  secrecy. 
There  is  a  law  upon  the  statute  books  making  the 
purchase  or  the  sale  of  a  vote  a  crime,  with  severe 
penalties  attached,  but  it  is  disregarded  and  has  be- 
come almost  a  dead  letter.     The  laws  of  Chile  also 
provide  for  a  secret  ballot,  but  it  is  neither  secret 
nor  sacred.     The  election  of  a  president  in  Chile  is 
by  the  electoral  system,  the  electors  being  selected 


138  PEOGRESSIVE  CHILE 

by  popular  vote,  and  apportioned  on  a  basis  of 
population. 

The  constitution  gives  to  the  poor  of  Chile  the 
birthright  of  freedom,  and  all  men  are  supposed  to 
be  equal  under  the  laws  of  the  Republic.  Many  of 
tl)ose  living  upon  the  large  haciendas,  however,  have 
little  freedom  of  action  or  individuality  and  some  of 
them  are  little  more  than  a  part  of  the  general  farm 
equipment.  They  are  dependent  and  apparently  de- 
fenseless, Inquilinos  almost  invariably  sell  their 
labor  in  advance  to  the  owners  of  the  property  on 
which  they  live.  Thej^  never  leave  the  hacienda,  for 
conditions  are  everywhere  the  same.  The  rich  land- 
owners are  powerful  enough  to  force  into  subjuga- 
tion all  within  their  domains,  and  they  assert  their 
authority  with  the  arrogance  of  autocrats.  The  in- 
quilinos have  nothing  beyond  a  meager  living;  they 
always  remain  poor.  They  are  not  permitted  to 
sow,  reap  or  do  any  work  for  themselves  until  all  the 
work  of  a  similar  character  on  the  hacienda  is  fin- 
ished. 

The  majority  of  these  poor  people  are  honest  with 
their  patrons.  When  crimes  are  committed  it  is 
against  others  and  not  their  master.  As  a  rule  the 
only  offense  of  which  they  are  guilty  is  that  of  har- 
boring friendly  thieves  in  their  houses  on  the  ha- 
ciendas, thereby  indirectly  aiding  in  theft  com- 
mitted. If  an  hacienda  changes  hands,  it  makes  not 
the  slightest  difference  with  the  servants,  who  re- 
main, many  of  them  spending  their  entire  lives  upon 
the  estate  where  they  are  born.  The  average  wage 
of  these  farm  laborers  is  about  forty  centavos  per 
day.  This  low  compensation  is  not  due  to  a  surplus 
of  fann  labor,  for  in  fact  there  is  a  scarcity. 


CLASSIFIED  HUSBANDMEN  139 

The  condition  of  the  poor  people  in  the  farming 
communities  has  resulted  in  recent  years  in  an  exo- 
dus of  labor  to  the  nitrate  fields  and  mineral  dis- 
tricts of  Atacama,  Tarapaca,  Copiapo  and  Co- 
quimbo,  where  they  receive  good  wages  and  are  paid 
regularly.  This  inviting  field  for  labor,  within  the 
territorial  limits  of  the  Republic,  is  encouraging  a 
more  independent  spirit  among  the  working  classes. 
That,  together  with  the  resentment  against  oppres- 
sion so  long  imposed  upon  them  by  the  hacendados, 
has  already  produced  a  marked  effect  and  is  rapidly 
growing  into  a  condition  of  open  hostility  between 
emploj-^er  and  employes.  The  laborers  are  already 
organizing  themselves  into  unions  which  opens  a 
fruitful  field  for  the  agitator  and  the  political  dema- 
gogue. This  has  been  evidenced  by  organized  de- 
mands for  shorter  hours  and  higher  wages  among 
the  employes  in  many  of  the  seaport  towns  within 
the  past  few  years.  It  had  its  most  striking  and 
tragic  illustration  in  the  riots  in  Valparaiso  in  May, 
1903,  when  the  city  was  sacked  and  property  burned 
by  a  mob  of  striking  stevedores. 

This  independent  movement,  this  breaking  away 
from  former  conditions  had  its  origin  in  the  revolu- 
tion of  1891,  which  inaugurated  new  and  worse  rela- 
tions between  capital  and  labor.  The  uprising  gave 
the  Roto  Chileno  an  opportunity  to  unmask  and  to 
manifest  his  natural  characteristics.  Not  at  first 
upon  a  strike  plan,  but  in  secret  combination  against 
those  who  employ  labor;  to  shield  each  other  in  in- 
fractions of  the  law;  to  organize  a  class  into  a  union 
of  criminals  that  includes  in  its  depredations  every 
act  in  the  category  of  crime.  An  undeclared  war  is 
waged,  unexpressed  antagonism,  and  unspoken  en- 


140  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

niity  have  been  inducted  into  being.  The  policy  of 
weak  submission,  in  which  they  so  long  acquiesced, 
is  gradually  but  surely  changing  to  one  of  open  de- 
fiance. Generations  of  smoldering  hatred  burst 
forth  in  the  flarao  of  strife  and  revolution,  and  the 
growth  and  menacing  hostile  attitude  of  labor  and 
capital  to-day  is  the  outgrowth  of  that  movement. 

These  labor  troubles,  felt  first  in  the  populous  cen- 
ters, are  gradually  finding  their  way  to  the  farms 
and  haciendas,  and  it  is  easy  to  predict  the  changed 
condition  that  will  result  within  a  few  years;  condi- 
tions that  will  reach  the  other  extreme.  There  is  no 
class  of  people  so  tyrannical,  so  unreasonable  and 
dictatorial,  as  the  ignorant,  the  poor  and  oppressed, 
when  once  they  hold  the  balance  of  power.  The 
Roto  Chilenos,  as  an  organized  force,  would  be  a 
desperate,  dangerous  class,  a  menace  to  society  and 
good  government.  Let  us  hope  that  the  distance 
between  these  extremes  will  be  narrowed,  that  capi- 
tal will  be  given  the  protection  and  encouragement 
to  which  it  is  entitled,  and  upon  which  its  existence 
depends,  and  at  the  same  time  labor  will  be  given 
the  best  remuneration,  the  broadest  field  and  the 
amplest  opportunity  possible.  This  is  a  problem 
that  should  concern  the  politicians  and  statesmen  of 
Chile.  The  time  has  passed  when  the  working  class 
will  submit  to  intolerance  and  oppression,  and  the 
fact  that  conditions  are  changing-,  even  in  a  country 
where  the  common  peo])le  cling  tenaciously  to  tradi- 
tion and  usage,  must  be  recognized.  The  sons  and 
daughters  of  farmers  go  to  the  cities  and  take  serv- 
ice with  foreigners.  When  they  return  to  their 
country  homes  they  take  with  them  manners  and 
ideas    acquired    from    a    different    people — trans- 


CLASSIFIED  HUSBANDMEN  141 

planted  customs  from  another  world.  And  so, 
slowly,  backward  and  forward  among  the  people 
passes  the  sliuttle  of  changing  methods,  weaving 
into  the  fabric  of  life  new  and  strange  conditions. 
These  influences  are  making  themselves  felt  in  many 
ways.  In  the  typical  Chilean  village  one  some- 
times sees  among  the  thatched  roof  adobe  huts,  a 
house  with  some  pretensions  to  ornamentation.  In- 
stead of  an  earthen  floor,  and  the  patio  occupied  by 
fowls  and  animals,  there  is  a  brick  or  tile  floor,  and 
the  walls  are  ornamented  w^ith  pictures.  The  pon- 
cho, which  was  formerly  universally  worn  by  the 
men,  has  been  almost  entirely  discarded  in  the  cities, 
and  generally  so  in  the  villages.  The  mantilla,  that 
most  unsanitary  of  articles,  with  which  all  the 
women  of  Chile  formerly  draped  their  heads  and 
faces,  and  which  had  also  the  objectionable  feature 
of  giving  them  a  common  and  unattractive  appear- 
ance, is  fast  growing  into  disuse,  and  is  being  sup- 
planted by  more  modern  feminine  headdress.  The 
country  people  are  beginning  to  discard  sandals  for 
shoes,  and  in  many  ways  manifest  a  more  progres- 
sive spirit. 

A  Chileno  may  appear  upon  the  streets  of  a  city 
in  personal  attire  the  same  as  that  prescribed  for 
gentlemen  in  any  country,  but  custom  in  the  coun- 
try prescribes  a  different  standard.  A  gentleman 
huaso,  well  mounted  and  properly  equipped,  will 
have  several  hundred  dollars  represented  in  his  per- 
sonal adornment  and  caparison,  for  he  must  appear 
"a  la  moda  del  canipo"  (in  the  costume  of  the  coun- 
try). The  cost  of  the  outfit  of  the  average  well- 
mounted  Chilean  gentleman  farmer  may  be  calcu- 
lated as  follows :  Horse,  three  hundred  pesos ;  silver 


142  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

inoiinted  bridle  and  reins,  seventy-five;  silver 
mounted  saddle,  two  hundred;  inlaid  silver  belt  and 
knife,  fifty;  silver  spurs,  seventy-five;  poncho,  fifty; 
hat,  twenty;  special  riding  suit,  one  hundred;  em- 
broidered leggins,  seventy-five;  boots,  twenty-five; 
watch  and  other  extras,  two  hundred;  total,  one 
thousand  one  hundred  and  seventy  pesos,  equal  to 
four  himdred  dollars  United  States  currency. 

RODEO. 

One  of  the  most  exciting  of  the  many  peculiar 
practices. indulged  in  by  the  country  people,  and  one 
which  requires  great  skill  and  courage,  is  the 
'' rodeo"  (method  of  managing  wild  bullocks  in  a 
corral,  by  men  on  horseback).  It  is  the  Cliilean  Cor- 
rida, taking  the  place  of  the  Spanish  bull  fight,  and 
is  an  inoffensive  sport.  A  rodeo  is  an  event  of 
much  general  interest,  and  is  usually  attended  by 
large  crowds  of  people,  friends  and  invited  guests 
of  the  owner  of  the  hacienda  where  it  takes  place. 
Special  and  elaborate  preparations  are  made,  and 
the  rodeo  is  looked  forward  to  with  much  interest, 
not  only  by  those  who  take  part  in  the  dangerous 
proceedings,  but  also  by  everyone  favored  with  an 
invitation  or  an  opportunity  to  attend.  The  com- 
pany first  assembles  at  the  residence  of  the  gentle- 
man giving  the  function,  where  all  the  specially  in- 
vited guests  and  personal  friends  are  entertained. 

The  vaqueros  have  been  instructed  to  collect  in  a 
large  corral,  representing  a  half  circle,  all  the  cattle 
from  the  hill  potreros.  The  animals  are  usually  un- 
accustomed to  the  sight  of  anyone  except  the  va- 
quero  who  attends  them,  and  are  wild  and  easily  ex- 
cited.    When    the    time    arrives    for    opening    the 


CLASSIFIED  HUSBANDMEN  143 

rodeo,  the  horses  of  the  men  who  are  to  participate, 
are  brought  out,  each  attended  by  a  mozo  (personal 
servant),  who  carefully  adjusts  the  huge  spurs  al- 
ways used  on  such  occasions,  to  the  boots  of  their 
respective  masters.  The  men  then  mount  and  ride 
to  the  corrals,  each  followed  by  his  mozo  with  sev- 
eral reserve  horses  to  be  used  in  case  of  necessity. 
About  the  corrals,  which  are  decorated  with  flags 
and  bunting,  is  a  large  crowd,  including  the  mounted 
servants  of  the  hacienda,  as  well  as  the  inquilinos 
and  servants  from  other  farms,  on  horseback  and  in 
carts.  Later  the  ladies  of  the  household  and  their 
friends  and  guests  arrive  and  occupy  seats  espe- 
cially prepared  for  them,  which  command  a  good 
view  of  the  corral.  An  order  is  given  for  the  func- 
tion to  begin  and  employes  of  the  hacienda  enter 
the  corral  and  drive  the  animals  close  together,  en- 
circling them  to  prevent  their  escape.  The  men 
who  are  to  participate  in  this  sport  take  their  posi- 
tions and  a  bullock  is  permitted  to  pass  through  the 
line  encircling  the  herd.  It  is  immediately  charged 
by  two  of  the  waiting  party,  one  following  and  urg- 
ing it  on,  the  other  riding  by  its  side,  forcing  the 
beast  as  closely  as  possible  to  the  corral  fence. 
When  they  have  traversed  the  distance  of  the  corral 
enclosure  the  person  riding  by  the  animal's  side 
rushes  to  its  head,  and  by  a  clever  move  turns  it  sud- 
denly around.  The  positions  of  pursuing  parties 
are  reversed,  first  one  riding  at  the  side  of  and  turn- 
ing the  infuriated  beast,  and  then  the  other,  until  it 
is  completely  subdued.  Until  it  is  conquered  the 
riders  must  at  no  time  leave  the  animal.  If  it  bolt 
through  the  herd,  or  amongst  the  bunch  of  mounted 
servants  on  guard,  they  must  follow,  each  keeping 


144  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

liis  respective  position.  Tlieir  horses  are  well 
trained  and  enter  into  the  sport  with  as  keen  a  zest 
as  the  riders.  When  one  animal  has  been  con- 
quered it  is  driven  from  the  corral  and  another 
turned  loose,  different  persons  taking  pari  in  each 
separate  contest.  If  a  horse  is  gored,  as  is  often  the 
case,  or  llie  rider  dismounted  and  trampled  upon, 
others  quickly  take  their  places  and  the  sport  con- 
tinues. During  the  rodeo  the  spectators  applaud  or 
groan  at  the  acts  of  the  ])articii:)ants,  according  to 
their  merit  or  demerit.  Rodeos  sometimes  last  for 
several  days.  An  intermission  is  given  in  the 
middle  of  the  day  during  which  lunch  is  served,  and 
at  night  there  is  always  entertainment  and  much 
merrymaking  at  the  hacienda  residence.  This  sport 
is  full  of  surprises,  both  comic  and  tragic,  as  there  is 
always  an  element  of  uncertainty  in  the  actions  of  a 
wild  and  infuriated  young  bull,  when  pursued  and 
harassed  until  he  becomes  desperate.  The  day's 
entertainment  often  closes  with  some  daring  va- 
quero  lassoing,  saddling  and  mounting  a  big,  un- 
tamed bull. 

One  of  the  purposes  of  a  rodeo  is  that  the  owners 
of  cattle  in  ncMghboring  haciendas  may  have  all  of 
the  cattle  brought  in  from  the  hills,  identified  and 
separated.  The  cattle  belonging  to  each  estate  bear 
the  registered  mark  of  the  owner  by  which  they  are 
identified.  Frequently  animals  stray  from  their 
ranges  and  potreros  and  join  the  herds  in  neighbor- 
ing haciendas.  In  these  annual  rodeos,  or  round- 
ups, they  are  divided  and  each  lot  according  to  mark 
or  brand  is  returned  to  the  owner.  All  the  vaque- 
ros  of  the  different  estates  in  the  locality  attend  and 
I)articipate.     In  this  way  the  hacendados  get  all  the 


CLASSIFIED  HUSBANDMEN  145 

wild  yonng  animals  from  the  hills  brought  in,  sepa- 
rated and  branded  at  practically  no  expense.  AVliat 
is  considered  sport,  and  a  festival  by  the  vaqueros 
and  employes  on  the  big  farms,  is  in  reality  the  an- 
nual collection  of  cattle,  as  a  matter  of  business  to 
the  owner. 

The  crowd  constituting  the  spectators  at  a  rodeo 
is  made  up  of  jieons,  inquilinos  and  vaqueros  from 
neighboring  haciendas.  They  dance  the  cuaca,  and 
there  is  music  of  primitive  harps  and  guitars. 
There  is  much  drinking  of  chicha  and  exchange  of 
badinage,  all  mixed  with  talk  of,  and  comment  on  the 
rodeo,  and  the  personal  skill  and  bravery,  or  the 
lack  of  those  qualities,  displayed  by  those  engaged 
in  the  sport.  In  the  evening,  after  the  conclusion 
of  the  rodeo,  along  the  dusty  country  roads  leading 
to  the  homes  of  these  people  one  may  witness  stren- 
uous and  exciting  contests  in  topeadura,  in  which 
sturdy  Chilean  ponies  and  tipsy  riders  form  the 
component  part. 

CHACRA.. 

Chacra  (vegetable  farm),  is  usually  land  rented 
in  small  sections  by  the  poor  people  from  the  rich 
landowners.  After  the  servants  have  been  allotted 
their  portion  of  land  in  the  poorest  soil  of  the  ha- 
cienda, other  portions  are  rented,  usually  for  a 
stipulated  rental  of  two  thousand  kilos  of  beans  for 
each  quadra  (four  acres).  At  the  harvest  time  the 
landowner  must  be  paid  his  rent,  either  in  the  pro- 
portion of  the  products  stipulated,  or  the  cash  mar- 
ket value  of  same.  This  settlement  must  be  made 
before  the  ''chacrero"  is  permitted  to  remove  any 
of  the  crops.     The  lessee's  family  live  in  the  chacra 


146  PEOGRESSIVE  CHILE 

in  luits  made  of  tlie  branclies  of  trees.  The  hacen- 
dado  knows  tlie  productive  capacity  of  his  land,  and 
gauges  the  rental  value  accordingly.  If  the  renter 
manages  to  save  a  few  sacks  of  beans,  after  living 
and  paying  his  rent,  he  is  fortunate.  As  a  rule  this 
class  of  tillers  of  the  soil  receive  nothing  more  than 
a  meager  living  for  their  labor. 


HxVBITS  AND  CUSTOMS 

A  CAREFUL  study  of  the  history  of  Chile  from 
the  time  that  Pedro  de  Valdivia  attempted  to 
subjugate  the  Indians,  through  the  colonial  period 
to  the  revolution  of  1810,  when  Spanish  rule  was 
overthrown  and  Chile  took  her  place  in  the  sister- 
hood of  South  American  Republics;  through  the 
varying  vicissitudes  of  its  first  half  century  of  na- 
tional existence,  down  to  the  present  time,  will  re- 
veal the  fact  that  certain  customs  and  traditions 
characteristic  of  the  race  have  been  maintained.  In 
some  instances  they  reflect  the  influences  of  changed 
conditions  and  environments;  foreign  ideas  have 
been  engrafted  upon  the  social  structure  and  the 
body  politic,  but  in  character,  and  in  general  char- 
acteristics, the  Cliileno  retains  his  inheritance  from 
Spanish  and  Indian  ancestors.  This  is  particularly 
true  of  their  economic  use  of  water.  It  can  be 
safely  said  that  the  majority  of  the  working  classes 
or  country  people  apply  water  sparingly  to  their 
hands  and  faces  only,  and  never  to  their  bodies,  and 
many  of  them  are  utter  strangers  to  its  personal 
application. 

This  does  not  apply,  of  course,  to  the  wealthy, 
educated  and  traveled  Chilenos,  who  go  annually  to 
the  seashore,  or  other  pleasure  and  health  resorts, 
such  as  Panca,  Cauquenes,  or  Vina  del  Mar,  the  lat- 
ter being  the  summer  playground  of  the  rich.  A 
visit  to  any  of  the  pleasure  resorts  by  a  Chilean 

147 


148  PEOGRESSIVE  CHILE 

family,  be  they  residents  of  the  country  or  city,  is 
an  event  attended  with  much  pomp  and  ceremony. 
They  take  with  them  their  horses  and  carriages,  a 
retinue  of  servants  and  an  extra  supply  of  clothes 
for  display  for  the  purpose  of  impressing  other  visi- 
tors witli  their  financial  standing  and  social  import- 
ance. The  vacation  season  in  Chile  is  usually  from 
the  first  of  January  to  the  fifteenth  of  March.  For 
two  months  government  service  is  transferred  from 
Santiago  to  Valparaiso,  the  president  and  his  cabi- 
net taking  up  their  temporary  residence  in  Vina  del 
Mar,  a  suburb  of  Valparaiso.  The  courts  are  closed 
and  practically  all  business  suspended  in  the  capi- 
tal. Members  of  the  diplomatic  corps  follow  the 
Santiaginas  to  the  seashore,  and  the  suburbs  of  Val- 
paraiso, with  their  hotels  and  bathing  beaches,  are 
gay  with  fashionably  dressed  visitors  and  social 
functions.  Many  people  who  indulge  in  this  annual 
seaside  frolic  are  compelled  to  resort  to  strenuous 
domestic  economy  for  the  remainder  of  the  year,  in 
order  to  recuperate  from  the  financial  sacrifice  made 
in  the  effort  to  compete  in  the  social  exhibit  with 
those  who  can  well  afford  the  expense.  Others 
whose  financial  condition  will  not  admit  of  their 
joining  tlie  procession  of  those  who  appear  for  a  few 
brief  weeks  in  the  year  upon  the  social  stage  at  Vina 
del  Mar,  close  the  front  of  their  city  residences,  and 
do  not  appear  in  public  during  the  vacation  season. 
The  poor  classes  who  cannot  afford  a  vacation, 
live  in  filth  and  unsanitary  conditions  the  year 
round,  and  during  their  natural  lives.  The  dwell- 
ings of  the  poor  are  built  without  regard  to  architec- 
ture, comfort  or  hygiene,  and  the  domestic  condition 
of  the  occupants  is  a  menace  to  health.     The  floor  of 


HABITS  AND  CUSTOMS  149 

a  majority  of  tlie  Imts  is  the  ground,  which  during 
the  rainy  season  becomes  damp,  and  not  infre- 
quently muddy.  The  refuse  water  from  the  houses 
is  thrown  any  place  outside  to  get  rid  of  it,  and 
there  being  no  drains  to  carry  it  away,  it  becomes 
stagnant  and  creates  disease.  Donkeys,  dogs,  pigs 
and  poultry  maintain  intimate  social  relations  with 
the  members  of  the  household,  not  infrequently  be- 
ing housed  with  the  family  at  night. 

Chile  has  several  dishes  peculiar  to  and  character- 
istic of  the  country.  Cazuela  is,  strictly  speaking, 
a  national  dish.  It  is  a  sort  of  soup,  served  as  a 
first  course  at  any  meal,  but  more  particularly  for 
breakfast.  It  is  made  of  mutton,  ''cordero,"  or 
fowl,  with  various  kinds  of  vegetables,  all  cooked  to- 
gether and  served  hot.  It  possesses  the  merit  of 
including  both  meat  and  vegetable,  solid  and  liquid 
food.  In  addition  to  being  inexpensive,  it  is  easily 
made  and  is  very  palatable.  It  is  extremely  popu- 
lar with  all  classes  of  Chilenos  and  is  a  dish  that 
foreigners  invariably  become  fond  of  after  once  hav- 
ing tested  its  good  qualities.  A  breakfast  in  Chile 
without  cazuela  would  be  considered  a  poor  meal. 
"Puchero,"  is  another  dish  of  which  the  Chilenos 
are  fond,  and  which  is  usually  served  at  dinner.  It 
consists  of  meat  boiled  with  a  variety  of  vegetables, 
all  being  cooked  dry,  and  served  without  liquid. 
*'Empanadas,'^  a  sort  of  meat  pie,  is  also  popular 
and  peculiar  to  the  country. 

The  zama  cuaca  is  the  national  dance  of  Chile. 
It  is  danced  by  all  classes,  and  is  made  clownish  or 
genteel,  coarse  or  refined,  according  to  the  different 
social  grades  of  the  participants.  In  no  case  can  it 
be  considered  vulgar,  and  when  properly  danced  it 


150  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

is  graceful  and  attractive.  It  is  danced  in  couples. 
The  lady  and  gentleman  each  carr^^  a  handkerchief 
in  the  right  hand,  which  they  wave  in  front  of  their 
partner  as  they  move  about  the  room,  keeping  time 
to  the  lively  and  inspiring  music  of  harps  and  g*ui- 
tars.  The  music  of  the  instruments  is  usually  ac- 
com])anied  with  the  hum  of  voices  and  the  clapping 
of  the  hands  of  spectators.  The  dancers  always 
face  each  other,  except  at  certain  intervals,  when 
they  turn  suddenly  around  and  then  proceed  as  be- 
fore. Whether  in  the  parlor,  in  a  despacho,  a  can- 
cha  de  bola,  or  in  the  open,  the  zama  cuaca  is  a  na- 
tional favorite,  and  the  music  will  always  arouse  the 
interest  and  enthusiasm  of  everyone  present.  It  is 
indulged  in  on  all  occasions  where  people  congre- 
gate, day  or  night,  and  crowds  frequently  stop  along 
the  country  roads  to  dance  the  cuaca. 

At  places  where  the  country  and  village  people 
congregate  on  feast  days,  '^fondas,"  enclosures  pre- 
pared especially  for  dancing,  are  provided.  The 
fonda  is  enclosed  on  three  sides  and  is  covered  with 
branches  of  the  arrayan,  a  flowering  bush,  which 
emits  a  strong,  but  pleasant  odor.  In  front  of  the 
entrance  is  a  ''vara"  for  topear.  Most  of  the 
i:)eople  attending  feast  day  demonstrations  go  on 
horseback,  and  there  is  always  a  mixed  and  miscel- 
laneous mounted  crowd  in  front  of  the  fonda.  In- 
side, seated  upon  benches,  are  men  and  women  who 
diAdde  their  time  between  dancing  and  drinking. 
Those  not  engaged  in  the  dance  keep  up  a  constant 
hand-clapping,  timing  their  movements  with  the 
music.  Sometimes  during  the  dance,  when  a 
woman  performs  a  special  evolution  that  is  thought 
to  be  very  clever  or  unusually  graceful,  some  man 


HABITS  AND  CUSTOMS  151 

in  the  crowd,  perceptibly  affected  with  alcohol,  calls 
out  in  a  loud  voice,  ''aro,  aro."  At  the  sound  of 
this  magic  word,  which  means  drinks  for  all,  the 
music  and  the  hand-clapping  cease  and  the  dancers 
stop.  Then  the  woman  in  charge  of  the  fonda  ap- 
pears and  passes  to  the  man  who  called  ''aro,"  a 
"potrillo"  (a  large  glass  tumbler)  filled  with  chi- 
cha,  or  a  mixture  of  aguardiente  and  milk.  The  man 
takes  the  brimming  potrillo,  approaches  the  dan- 
cers, and  bowing  profoundly,  offers  it  to  the 
lady.  She  appears  shy,  makes  several  courtesies, 
accepts  the  cup,  takes  a  sip  and  returns  it  to  the 
man.  After  the  women  dancers  have  been  served, 
the  cup  is  passed  to  the  men  engaged  in  the  dance, 
and  later  to  the  spectators,  all  drinking  from  the 
same  potrillo  until  it  is  finished.  The  man  calling 
aro  does  the  honors  in  passing  the  drink,  and  for 
anyone  present  to  refuse  would  be  considered  an  in- 
sult that  would  probably  be  resented. 

A  peculiar  feature  of  the  cuaca  is  the  solemnity 
with  which  it  is  conducted.  There  is  never  a  laugh 
or  a  joke,  and  seldom  a  smile.  Levity  on  such  occa- 
sions would  be  considered  an  indiscretion.  The 
Chilenos  take  every  phase  of  life  lightly  and  indif- 
ferently, except  their  amusements,  which  are  sa- 
credly serious. 

A  peculiar  custom  in  Chile  is  that  of  offering  to  a 
friend  any  article  that  he  may  desire.  It  is  not 
proper,  however,  to  accept  the  proffered  gift.  The 
would-be  donor  is  given  an  opportunity  to  show  his 
generosity,  and  at  the  same  time  made  happy  by 
having  his  offer  declined. 

There  prevails  in  Chile  a  pretty  custom  in  saluta- 
tions, conversation  and  in  summoning  persons,  in 


152  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

Tvhicli  tlie  christian  name  is  always  used.  It  is  prac- 
ticed between  members  of  families,  friends,  ac- 
quaintances, servants  and  masters.  To  strangers 
it  conveys  the  idea  of  familiarity,  but  on  tlie  con- 
trary it  is  the  most  polite  formality.  The  christian 
name  is  always  used  in  social,  domestic  and  com- 
mercial intercourse  where  the  parties  are  known  to 
each  other.  When  strangers  are  addressing  each 
other  it  is  always  Sehor,  Sefiora  or  Sehorita. 
Friends  and  even  acquaintances  are  profuse  in  the 
use  of  personal  and  endearing  terms.  Another 
method  of  expressing  pleasure  when  friends  or  rela- 
tives, either  male  or  female,  meet,  is  to  embrace,  each 
passing  the  right  hand  around  and  patting  the  other 
affectionately  upon  the  back. 

Politeness  is  one  of  the  characteristics  inherited 
by  the  Chilenos  from  tlieir  Spanish  ancestors. 
Members  of  the  same  family,  especially  among  the 
better  classes,  are  kind  and  always  considerate  of 
each  other's  feelings  and  wishes.  Family  quarrels 
and  disputes  are  seldom  indulged  in,  and  never  in 
the  presence  of  strangers.  Among  the  middle  and 
poor  classes,  there  are  occasional  rows,  and  some- 
times encounters  between  members  of  the  same 
family,  but  it  is  usually  due  to  the  influence  of  drink 
rather  than  their  natural  inclinations.  It  is  a  na- 
tional custom  for  the  right  of  correction  and  pun- 
ishment to  rest  with  parents,  so  long  as  they  and 
their  children  live.  A  son  never  becomes  too  old  to 
be  chastised  by  his  father  or  mother.  He  may  have 
reached  middle  age,  be  the  father  of  a  large  family, 
and  even  venerably  gray,  but  if  either  of  his  parents 
sees  fit  to  box  his  ears,  or  even  to  apply  more  vigor- 
ous methods  of  punishment  for  any  dereliction  of 


HABITS  AND  CUSTOMS  153 

duty  or  for  any  offense,  the  chastisement  is  admin- 
istered with  impunity  and  is  accepted  without  resent- 
ment. 

It  is  the  custom  among  uneducated  country  people 
in  calculating  their  ages,  to  reckon  time  from  some 
important  event  that  has  taken  place  in  the  country, 
such  as  the  revolution,  severe  earthquake,  or  other 
notable  occurrences.  The  great  earthquake  of  1851, 
is  often  used  as  a  basis  for  calculating  the  ages  of 
old  people. 

An  aire  is  a  muscular  affliction  of  the  face  or  neck, 
which  may  result  from  sitting  or  remaining  in  a 
draught  when  one  is  warm  or  perspiring.  It  is  a 
common  affliction  in  Chile,  and  to  avoid  the  danger, 
not  only  the  country  people,  but  those  living  in 
cities  and  towns,  are  disposed  to  keep  their  rooms 
closed  to  the  exclusion  of  fresh  air,  and  to  the  great 
discomfort  of  the  occupants. 

Sometimes  foreigners  on  arriving  in  Chile  find  the 
customs  of  the  country  unsatisfactory,  according  to 
their  theories,  and  at  once  constitute  themselves 
missionaries  to  '* convert  the  natives,"  as  they  put 
it.  They  proceeded  to  introduce  ideas  and  methods 
that  confonn  to  their  own  standard  of  ideals.  The 
result  usually  is  the  acquisition  of  an  unsatisfactory 
lot  of  experience,  without  having-  affected  any 
changes  in  the  prevailing  customs,  or  even  made  any 
impression  upon  those  for  whom  the  education  was 
intended.  The  Chilenos  are  slow  to  accept  innova- 
tions, and  quick  to  resent  the  presumption  of  for- 
eigners who  attempt  to  engraft  new  ideas  and  cus- 
toms upon  the  ways  and  traditions  of  their  countrv. 


EELIGION 

THE  sanctity  of  the  churcli  is  considered  forbid- 
den ground  to  all  those  who  attempt  to  portray 
the  life  and  customs  of  the  people  of  any  country. 
To  criticise  religious  forms  or  customs  is  to  incur 
the  displeasure,  arouse  the  combative  spirit  and  the 
resentful  nature  of  the  communicants  of  the  churcli 
under  discussion.  It  means  to  bring  down  upon  the 
head  of  the  offending  scribe  the  wrath  of  those  who 
have  found  consolation  in  the  church.  Religious 
views  and  ideas,  with  prejudices  deep  rooted  and 
strong,  are  generally  inherited. 

Believing  that  there  is  good  in  all  churches,  that 
the  Christian  religion  is  the  foundation  upon  which 
the  superstructure  of  good  society  and  modern  civi- 
lization is  based,  the  writer  wishes  to  preface  his 
comments  on  the  Church  in  Chile,  with  the  state- 
ment that  it  is  not  the  purpose  to  criticise  the  Chris- 
tian religion,  but  to  point  out  some  of  the  peculiar, 
and  what  would  seem  to  the  disinterested  observer, 
objectionable  practices  in  the  dominating  church. 

The  Catholic  religion  has  been  so  closely  inter- 
woven in  the  fabric  of  Chilean  history  that  it  forms 
a  feature  of  every  chapter  in  the  Eepublic's  record. 
It  is  impossible  to  accurately  describe  the  life  and 
customs  of  the  country,  and  at  the  same  time  omit 
so  important  an  influence  as  that  exercised  by  the 
church  on  the  political  and  social  life  of  Chile. 

Article  4  of  the  constitution   (1833),  says:  ^'La 

154 


EELIGION  155 

Religion  de  la  Eepublica  de  Chile  es  la  Catolica 
Apostolica  Eomana,  con  exclusion  del  ejercicio 
publico  de  cualquiera  otra. "  (The  religion  of  the 
Republic  of  Chile  is  the  Roman  Catholic  Apostolic 
with  the  exclusion  of  the  public  exercise  of  whatever 
other.) 

Under  constitutional  authority  the  public  exercise 
of  all  religious  worship,  except  the  Catholic,  was  ex- 
cluded from  Chile  until  1865,  when  the  right  was 
conceded  to  establish  non-Catholic  schools  within 
private  property,  and  to  be  supervised  by  a  Catholic 
board.  Later  came  another  innovation  in  the  civil 
register  law. 

In  Chile  the  State  sanctions,  helps  to  support  and 
maintain  the  Catholic  church,  and  the  church  par- 
ticipates in  politics  and  the  affairs  of  state.  Reach- 
ing out  through  its  various  ramifications  the  church 
extends  its  influence  to  the  farthest  limits  of  the 
country,  both  socially  and  politically.  The  union  of 
Church  and  State  is  strong,  and  the  day  seems  far 
distant  when  they  will  be  divorced.  Able  and  cour- 
ageous men,  individually  and  in  party  groups,  have 
tried  to  loosen  the  hold  Catholicism  has  on  Chile, 
and  have  in  some  instances  weakened  its  influence 
upon  the  body  politic,  but  it  is  still  powerful. 
President  Balmaceda  endeavored  to  separate 
Church  and  State,  not  by  destroying  the  church,  but 
by  directing  each  in  its  legitimate  channel.  The 
result  was  defeat,  revolution,  disaster  and  death. 

One  of  the  Popes  said  concerning  the  Catholic 
church:  "Its  catholicity  is  its  credentials  to  Di- 
vine origin  and  authority."  It  is  not  the  intention 
of  the  writer  to  challenge  this  statement,  but  the 
broad,  liberal  Catholic  idea  would  seem  to  suggest 


156  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

that  the  influence  of  the  church  should  be  directed 
along  lines  laid  down  in  the  Divine  Law,  and  not 
exerted  in  an  effort  to  control  political  policies. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  to  discuss  here  the  indi- 
vidual merits  of  the  clergy,  but  to  consider  it  as  a 
body  politic,  its  influence  for  weal  or  woe  with  the 
people  and  upon  the  nation.  It  is  a  significant  fact 
that  every  law  on  the  statute  books  tending  to  se- 
cure greater  liberty  of  action,  freedom  of  thought 
and  speech,  has  been  opposed  by  the  political  ele- 
ment of  the  church.  Such  progressive  measures  as 
the  civil  register  law,  providing  for  a  public  record 
of  births,  deaths  and  marriages,  and  requiring  civil 
marriage  ceremonies;  the  establishment  and  main- 
tenance of  public  and  private  schools,  and  the  desig- 
nation of  non-Catholic  cemeteries,  where  Protestants 
might  receive  burial,  have  received  the  opposition 
of  the  clergy. 

To  try  to  lift  the  veil  and  look  into  the  private 
lives  of  the  clergy  would  seem  little  less  than  sac- 
rilege. It  would  reveal  acts  pure  and  noble,  lives 
worthy  of  example  and  emulation,  and  it  would  also 
show  startling  and  shocking  scenes  enacted  in  the 
name  of  religion.  There  are  those  who  are  sac- 
rificing their  lives  in  the  cause  of  the  Master,  oth- 
ers living  vicious  and  licentious  lives  under  the 
cloak  of  Christianity.  The  illiteracy  and  supersti- 
tion of  the  people  give  to  the  unworthy  and  insin- 
cere opportunities  to  practice  deception  and  impo- 
sition. Upon  the  other  hand,  these  same  conditions 
afford  an  ample  field  and  unlimited  opportunities 
for  good,  with  those  who  are  conscientious  and  pos- 
sess the  true  Christian  spirit. 

There  are  more  than  ten  thousand  monks  of  dif  ■ 


EELIGION  157 

ferent  orders  in  Chile.  During  the  summer  months 
they  go  about  the  country  in  pairs  or  in  trios,  hold- 
ing mission  services,  which  they  conduct  without 
price  or  reference  to  money.  The  expenses  of 
these  itinerant  clergj^men  are  paid  from  the  funds 
of  the  order  they  represent.  They  do  much  good 
in  the  way  of  instructing  the  poor  country  and  vil- 
lage people  in  the  rudiments  of  civilized  life,  clean- 
liness, and  how  to  rear  their  children.  These  mis- 
sion services  usually  continue  for  a  week  or  ten 
days  in  one  place,  during  which  time  many  of  the 
women  and  children  of  the  community  remain  about 
the  church,  sleeping  upon  the  ground  at  night. 
These  mission  fathers  in  no  way  clash  with  the  reg- 
ular priests,  everything  being  understood  and  pre- 
arranged. Medallions  and  colored  prints  of  their 
patron  saints  are  freely  distributed,  and  never  fail 
to  create  a  pleasing  effect  upon  the  women  and 
children.  The  children  are  gathered  into  classes 
and  turned  over  to  the  more  intelligent  of  the 
women  of  the  church,  who  teach  them  the  catechism, 
and  to  sing  the  chants.  If  the  children  appear  in- 
different, or  especially  stupid  in  these  first  instruc- 
tions and  church  discipline,  their  minds  are  bright- 
ened and  their  memories  sharpened  by  whacks  with 
a  stick  in  the  hands  of  the  monks.  But  alas,  these 
poor  children  only  memorize  the  printed  prayers, 
no  explanations  of  their  true  meaning  being  made, 
and  so  through  life  they  go  on  repeating  prayers 
without  knowing  the  significance  of  the  words.  Not 
infrequently  this  smattering  of  an  education, 
gained  through  the  mission  teachings  of  the  trav- 
eling monks,  is  all  that  many  of  them  receive.  It 
is  through  these  methods  of  early  instruction  that 


158  PPtOGRESSIVE  CHILE 

the  prolific  growtli  of  superstition  prevalent  in 
Chile  is  cultivated  and  kept  alive.  Children  are 
taught  that  the  several  saints  on  the  calendar,  the 
anniversary  of  each  of  which  is  celebrated  with  a 
religious  feast,  are  all  powerful,  and  that  the  good 
offices  of  the  saints  can  be  secured  through  the  in- 
termediary of  the  priests. 

FEAST    DAYS. 

The  chief  national  feast  in  Chile  is  September 
18th,  the  anniversary  of  the  independence  of  the 
Republic,  known  as  "El  Diez  y  ocho."  There  are, 
however,  numerous  other  anniversary  celebrations, 
commemorating  victorious  battles  and  historic 
events,  which  are  observed  with  much  demonstra- 
tion in  the  cities  and  thickly  populated  districts. 
All  other  holidays,  of  which  there  are  something 
like  seventy  in  the  year,  are  called  religious  festi- 
vals. Every  saint  has  his  or  her  feast  day,  known 
as  church  feasts,  except  the  patron  saint  of  the 
local  church,  in  which  event  the  festival  lasts  for  a 
week  or  more. 

Ordinary  feasts  are  held  at  private  houses.  The 
adobe  walls  of  the  room  selected  for  the  service 
are  covered  with  paper,  and  an  improvised  altar 
arranged  by  placing  lighted  candles  upon  a  table. 
Upon  the  wall  above  the  table  is  hung  a  colored 
print  of  the  particular  saint  whose  anniversary  is 
being  celebrated.  Those  taking  part  in  the  serv- 
ices are  usually  seated  around  the  room  upon 
stones  or  blocks  of  wood,  and  if  such  seats  are  not 
available  they  squat  upon  the  dirt  floor,  the  crowd 
frequently  extending  into  the  open  in  front  of  the 
house.     There    are    harpists,    guitar    players    and 


RELIGION  159 

singers.  The  feast,  which  is  held  after  the  service, 
consists  of  boiled  beans  mixed  with  hulled  corn,  and 
as  extra,  boiled  dried  peaches  mixed  with  flour  or 
toasted  wheat.  After  the  food  has  been  served 
someone  in  the  crowd  gives  a  ''chaucha"  (twenty 
cents),  to  one  of  the  players  and  music  is  rendered 
in  praise  of  the  donor.  Someone  then  buys  wine 
or  chicha  and  the  health  of  the  saint  is  drunk. 
"When  the  singers  have  rendered  what  they  consider 
the  value  of  the  donation,  another  person  contrib- 
utes, and  by  this  means  the  music  is  kept  up.  Liq- 
uor is  passed  and  repassed  until  the  supply  is  ex- 
hausted, and  the  festival  continues  until  the  candles 
are  burned  out  and  the  crowd  lapses  into  a  state  of 
innocuous  desuetude,  to  sleep  off  the  effects  of  the 
debauch. 

Religious  ceremonies  and  feast  day  demonstra- 
tions are  events  of  much  general  interest  to  the 
country  people.  Easter  on  a  farm  brings  about 
the  annual  festival  of  "Correr  a  Cristo"  (running 
to  Christ).  A  mounted  procession  with  waving 
flags  and  banners,  and  weird  shouting,  makes  a  tour 
of  the  farm,  and  the  day  is  given  over  to  a  satur- 
nalia of  noise.  Sometimes  the  procession  will  stop 
by  the  roadside,  or  in  the  garden  in  front  of  the 
farmhouse  to  hear  mass,  or  long  enough  for  those 
in  attendance  to  receive  the  blessings  of  the  priests. 
The  procession  is  usually  headed  by  a  cart  draped 
with  palms  and  decorated  with  flowers. 

PROCESSION   OF  THE  PELICAN. 

One  of  the  peculiar  religious  festivals  of  the 
country  is  "La  Procesion  del  Pelicano"  (proces- 
sion of  the  pelican),  a  passion  play  held  annually 


160  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

at  Quill ota,  one  of  the  first  corannmities  established 
by  the  Spaniards  in  Chile.  To  the  old  city  in  the 
valley  of  the  Aconcagua,  there  is  an  annual  pil- 
grimage of  thousands  of  devout  Catholics,  and  oth- 
ers attracted  by  curiosity,  to  witness  the  strange 
procession. 

The  Procession  of  the  Pelican  has  no  mytholo- 
gical origin  or  significance,  as  is  generally  sup- 
posed, but  derives  its  name  from  the  colossal  bird, 
which  has  figured  in  the  demonstration  for  more 
than  a  century.  The  Cathedral  of  Quillota  was 
built  by  the  Bishop  of  Romero,  in  the  beginning  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  By  the  influence  of  the 
Bishop  the  ladies  of  the  community  formed  the  so- 
ciety of  the  ''Santo  Sepulcro"  (Holy  Sepulchre), 
and  by  collecting  alms  raised  the  funds  for  tliis 
traditional  procession.  The  annual  arrangement 
was  always  placed  in  charge  of  one  of  the  ladies  of 
the  society,  and  as  only  those  from  the  first  fami- 
lies were  selected  it  was  considered  a  great  honor. 

About  the  year  1776,  Dona  Amilia  iVlverez  de 
Araya,  whose  family  founded  the  original  town  of 
Quillota,  was  selected  to  direct  the  demonstration. 
Previous  to  that  time  the  Santo  Sepulcro,  on  which 
the  figure  representing  the  body  of  Christ  was 
placed,  on  being  lowered  from  the  cross,  was  a  com- 
mon wooden  box.  With  the  help  of  a  San  Francis- 
can monk,  who  was  a  good  joiner,  Doiia  Amilia 
planned  the  receptacle  since  used,  which  repre- 
sents a  swan  with  wings  extended.  The  huge 
image,  constructed  of  wood,  represents  the  bird 
with  arched  neck,  picking  at  its  breast  upon  which 
there  is  a  bright  red  spot,  in  imitation  of  a  blood 
stain. 


RELIGION  161 

On  Good  Friday  a  cross  is  erected  in  the  Plaza, 
on  a  miniature  mount,  covered  with  green.  Dur- 
ing the  day  it  is  guarded  by  huasos,  dressed  to  rep- 
resent the  Jews.  Previous  to  the  procession  a  man 
is  placed  upon  the  cross  in  imitation  of  the  Cruci- 
fixion. In  the  evening  the  Cura,  standing  upon  the 
steps  of  the  cathedral,  preaches  a  sermon  on  the 
''Passion  of  Our  Lord,"  after  which  the  proces- 
sion is  formed.  The  "andas"  (floats),  carried 
upon  the  shoulders  of  men,  represent  scenes  in  the 
life  of  the  Savior,  such  as  ''Christ  Before  Pilate," 
"Christ  Carrying  the  Cross,"  "The  Virgin  Sur- 
rounded by  Angels,"  etc.  The  feature  of  the  pro- 
cession is  the  Pelican,  which  is  borne  by  twelve 
men.  The  procession  marches  from  the  cathedral 
to  the  mount,  and  the  body  of  the  man  representing 
Christ  is  lowered  from  the  cross  and  placed  in  the 
Holy  Sepulchre,  the  Pelican.  During  the  proces- 
sion the  wings  of  the  Pelican,  which  are  covered 
with  mirrors,  open  and  shut  mechanically,  adding 
a  spectacular  feature  to  the  scene.  After  march- 
ing around  the  Plaza,  and  through  the  principal 
streets  the  procession  returns  to  the  cathedral,  and 
the  Pelican  is  placed  back  of  the  altar  where  it  re- 
mains until  the  recurrence  of  Good  Friday,  when 
it  is  again  brought  into  service  in  "La  Procesion 
del  Pelicano." 

The  hotels  in  the  provincial  town  are  inadequate 
to  accommodate  the  people  who  journey  annually 
to  Quillota  to  witness  the  strange  scenes  presented 
in  the  procession  of  the  Pelican,  and  when  the  cere- 
mony is  concluded  there  is  an  undignified  rush  for 
trains.  The  crowd,  that  stands  quietly  with  bared 
heads  during  the  passion  play,  resolves  itself  into 


162  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

a  mob,  eacli  individual  scrambling  and  fighting  for 
the  most  advantageous  position  at  the  railway  sta- 
tion. Those  who  cannot  secure  accommodation  in 
the  trains  must  spend  the  night  in  the  streets,  and 
following  "La  Procesion  del  Pelicano"  the  usual 
quiet  of  Quillota  is  turned  into  a  drunken  rabble. 
Tlie  police  are  unable  to-  control  the  crowd,  and  the 
scene  of  religious  fervor  and  devout  Christian 
spirit  shown  by  the  multitude  during  the  proces- 
sion representing  Christ  crucified,  is  changed  to  a 
bacchanalian  carousal.  The  event  brings  out  the 
peculiarities  of  the  Chilean  character.  One  hour 
they  are  intoxicated  with  religious  excitement  and 
the  next  on  agiiardiente,  entering  as  enthusiastic- 
ally into  the  spirit  of  one  condition  as  the  other, 
with  never  a  thought,  apparently,  of  the  incon- 
sistency of  their  actions. 

FEAST  OF  THE  PATRON  SAINT. 

The  celebration  of  the  anniversary  of  the  patron 
saint  of  the  parish  church  is  an  important  event. 
The  little  vico-parroquia  (district  church),  where 
the  annual  feast  is  held,  is  generally  whitewashed, 
and  has  a  tile  roof,  blue  doors,  and  yellow  painted 
windows,  and  is  topped  by  a  square  belfry  tower. 
It  is  usually  situated  upon  a  slight  elevation  from 
which  the  ground  slopes  down  to  a  nearby  country 
road.  The  only  relief  to  the  monotony  of  the 
dreary  surroundings  is  a  few  flowering  shade  trees. 
About  the  time  the  "novena"  is  concluded,  carts  be- 
gin to  arrive  and  form  in  line  along  the  roadside. 
As  the  crowd  augments  the  scene  resolves  itself 
into  one  of  aniination  and  activity.  People  are 
constructing  out  of  tree  boughs,  places  of  tempo- 


RELIGION  163 

rary  residence,  in  which  tliey  sleep  and  where  they 
conduct  a  small  business  during  the  festival. 
Women  are  engaged  in  bringing  in  firewood  and 
jugs  of  water,  which  they  carry  on  their  heads. 
Oxen  are  unhitched  from  carts  and  driven  home,  as 
the  feast  lasts  many  days.  Often  as  many  as  fifty 
carts,  covered  with  canvas,  branches  of  trees  or 
skins  are  arranged  side  by  side  in  close  proximity. 
They  serve  as  ])laces  of  shelter  for  the  own- 
ers, who  remain  throughout  the  feast.  Each  cart 
is  supplied  with  a  barrel  of  cliicha,  wine  and 
aguardiente,  and  also  with  fowls  and  vegetables, 
from  which  is  made  cazuela,  to  supply  the  hungry 
crowd. 

During  all  the  day  before,  and  up  to  the  hour  of 
the  feast,  which  begins  at  midnight,  active  prepara- 
tions for  the  event  continue.  People  are  arriving 
from  every  direction,  those  from  a  distance  on 
horseback,  and  those  from  the  neighborhood  on 
foot,  each  carrying  a  quantity  of  supplies  to  eat  or 
drink,  and  each  expecting  to  do  a  little  business  on 
the  morrow,  and  succeeding  days,  in  the  way  of 
catering  to  the  appetite  or  thirst  of  the  mixed  mul- 
titude. Some  are  ladened  with  skin  bags  filled 
with  wine  or  chicha,  others  carry  earthen  pots  or 
baskets  containing  such  articles  as  they  may  have 
to  dispose  of.  Fires  are  blazing,  pots  are  boiling, 
and  the  scene  along  the  roadside  resembles  a  min- 
iature militar^^  camp,  with  active  preparations  for 
the  customary  meal  of  soup  and  beans  going  for- 
ward. 

Later  the  crowd  is  divided  into  groups,  squat- 
ting upon  the  ground  and  eating  from  black  earthen 
dishes.     There  is  a  tapping  of  barrels,  uncorking 


164  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

of  skin  bags  and  earthen  jugs,  in  which  the  sup- 
plies of  liquor  are  stored.  Small  groups  of  gentle- 
men, or  families,  possessing  a  little  more  money 
than  the  average  persons  present,  are  seated  at 
home-made  tables,  which  are  covered  with  coarse 
sacking.  All  are  merry,  and  apparently  happy  to 
renew  acquaintances,  many  of  which  have  been 
neglected  since  the  last  feast  of  our  lady  of  mercy, 
Santa  Mercedes,  the  patroness  saint  of  the  little 
church  where  the  feast  is  being  held. 

The  parish  priest  has  not  yet  arrived  from  his 
parochial  residence,  hence  the  feast  has  not  form- 
ally begun.  A  murmur  along  the  line  of  feasters 
announces  the  approach  of  the  cura,  the  church 
bells  peal  joyously,  and  the  crowd  files  into  the  lit- 
tle church,  where  lighted  tapers  and  gilt  images 
add  a  spectacular  effect  to  the  scene.  The  priest 
X^reaches  a  pleasing  sermon,  for  the  purpose  of 
conciliating  his  congregation,  which  has  not  yet 
made  its  offering  to  the  virgin.  At  the  conclusion 
of  the  service  the  people  give  to  the  priest  such 
money  as  they  think  they  can  afford  to  contribute, 
or  that  which  has  been  entrusted  to  them  by  others 
who  could  not  attend.  They  have  come  from  every 
section  of  the  surrounding  country,  some  from 
great  distances,  who  wish  to  show  their  gratitude 
to  this  particular  saint,  for  favors  they  may  have 
received,  or  may  desire  to  receive  in  the  future. 
The  priest  is  not  made  aware  of  the  object  of  the 
donations.  The  donors  place  their  faith  implicitly 
in  the  saints,  believing  that  they  will  execute  the 
bequests.  These  poor  contributors  for  the  most 
part  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  particular  church 
where  the  offering  is  made.    As  an  example,  in 


EELIGION  165 

case  of  serious  illness  or  threatened  calamity  in  a 
family,  the  friends  or  relatives,  as  the  case  may  be, 
make  a  vow  that  if  spared  the  impending  trouble, 
they  will  give  a  certain  amount  to  a  certain  saint 
for  a  given  number  of  years.  These  promises  are 
usually  redeemed,  and  the  obligation  is  discharged 
at  the  particular  church  patronized  by  the  saint  to 
whom  the  promise  is  made.  Many  individual  in- 
stances might  be  cited  to  illustrate  the  fidelity  with 
which  these  people  make  offerings  to  the  saints. 

The  day  following  the  midnight  services  is  "La 
Mercedes,"  and  the  early  morning  shows  hundreds 
of  additional  votaries  en  route  to  the  church.  After 
the  morning  mass  the  image  of  the  virgin  Merce- 
des, bedecked  with  flowers,  is  removed  from  the 
church  altar,  and  carried  at  the  head  of  a  proces- 
sion that  marches  about  the  church.  The  priest, 
leading  the  procession,  and  reciting  prayers,  is 
showered  with  flowers.  After  this  parade  the 
image  is  again  placed  upon  the  altar,  there  to  re- 
main until  the  following  year,  September  8th, 
which  is  the  date  of  the  anniversaiy  of  Mercedes. 
The  priest  then  goes  his  way  and  the  real  fiesta, 
for  which  a  majority  of  those  present  have  come, 
that  of  eating,  drinking,  dancing  and  carousing  un- 
interruptedly for  several  days,  begins.  The  scene 
about  the  church  presents  some  features  peculiarly 
novel  and  picturesque.  The  hundreds  of  people 
dressed  in  the  costumes  of  the  country,  in  which 
bright  colors  predominate,  dozens  of  clumsy  bul- 
lock carts,  and  hundreds  of  horses  huddled  together 
in  the  church  grounds,  where  they  remain  for  days 
without  being  unsaddled,  and  in  many  instances 
without  food  or  water,  are  some  of  the  features  of 


166  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

this  feast  day  picture.  Tliere  are  improvised 
dance  halls,  bowling  alleys,  and  every  cart  and 
temporary  hut  is  turned  into  a  shop  where  is  dis- 
pensed such  articles  as  those  in  possession  may 
have  to  ol'fer.  At  each  place  where  liquors  are  dis- 
pensed there  is  singing,  dancing  and  music  of  gui- 
tars. Everyone  seems  to  have  something  to  sell, 
and  money  with  which  to  l)uy.  Having  made  their 
contributions  to  our  lady  of  mercy,  they  pursue  the 
god  Bacchus  with  enthusiasm  and  reckless  indul- 
gence. Good  fellowship  prevails,  drinks  encourage 
generosity  and  the  feast  goes  merrily  on. 

This  festival  falls  upon  a  date  that  marks  the 
api)roach  of  spring  in  Chile.  The  espino  is  in 
bloom,  and  the  odor  of  the  yellow  blossoms  of  that 
repellant,  thorny  bush,  Avhich  grows  abundantly 
throughout  the  country,  fills  the  air  with  sweet  per- 
fume; birds  in  the  mating  season  are  revelling  in 
the  first  green  of  the  trees  and  the  bloom  of  wild 
flowers.  Under  clumps  of  blossoming  trees  women 
are  cooking  cakes  and  vending  sweets,  while  sehori- 
tas  send  winning  glances  at  young  men  who,  too 
often  under  the  influence  of  liquor,  are  easy  preys  to 
the  arrows  of  cupid.  The  feast  continues  to 
increase  in  interest  and  enthusiasm  for  three  or 
four  days,  continuing  night  and  day,  when  it 
reaches  the  climax,  alter  which  from  loss  of  sleep 
and  deficiency  of  drink,  the  tide  begins  to  recede, 
and  the  crowd  to  decrease.  At  the  end  of  the  sixth 
or  eighth  day,  at  the  farthest,  the  last  of  the  crowd 
disperses,  leaving  only  the  trodden  grass  and  the 
blackened  remains  of  camp  fires  as  evidences  of 
the  greatest  and  merriest  local  frolic  of  the  year. 


/ 


SUPERSTITIONS 


IN  Chile  there  are  large  tracts  of  sparsely  pop- 
ulated territory  where  there  are  neither  doctors 
nor  drug  stores,  and  in  such  communities  it  is  nec- 
essary in  case  of  illness  for  the  people  to  resort  to 
home  remedies.  In  these  rural  communities  there 
are  many  old  women  who  assume  the  role  of  doc- 
tresses,  calling  themselves  *'Medicas."  They  are 
absolutely  ignorant  of  medicine  or  its  effect  upon 
the  human  system,  yet  with  their  odd  preparations 
of  herbs  they  sometimes  effect  cures  within  a  very 
short  time.  However,  it  is  said  that  they  more  fre- 
quently kill  than  cure  the  persons  they  treat. 
Should  the  patient  live  for  several  days  under  the 
treatment  of  the  Medica,  and  then  die,  nothing  is 
said  by  the  friends  of  the  deceased,  but  should  the 
victim  succumb  with  the  first  dose  the  doctress  is 
asked  to  change  her  residence  at  once. 

"Brujeria,"  or  witchcraft,  is  common  among  the 
women  in  the  lower  classes  in  Chile,  many  of  whom 
claim  to  be  "brujas,"  or  sorceresses.  The  women 
profess  to  be  able  to  inflict  strange  and  wonderful 
punishment  upon  their  enemies,  or  persons  who 
refuse  to  accede  to  their  demands.  The  most  com- 
mon delusion  of  these  superstitious  people,  espe- 
cially the  women,  is  the  power  of  the  "brujas"  to 
place  reptiles  or  insects  in  their  stomachs.  Fre- 
quently when  one  becomes  ill  or  distressed  with  a 
pain,  she  is  possessed  with  the  idea  that  she  has 

167 


168  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

been  bewitched,  declaring'  that  she  has  a  frog,  a 
toad,  a  snake,  spider,  or  other  object  in  her  stom- 
ach, jjl^it'^'d  there  by  a  sorceress.  These  poor 
women  believe  that  they  cannot  recover  from  an 
illness  of  this  sort  until  they  have  made  peace  with 
the  person  having  bewitched  them,  which  means  the 
giving  of  money  or  its  equivalent  in  presents.  It 
is  a  sort  of  faith  cure,  and  any  other  treatment 
seems  useless,  as  it  will  not  dispel  the  delusion. 
The  man  or  woman  with  dropsy  or  other  affliction 
will  almost  invariably  attribute  the  malady  to  an 
evil  sorceress.  These  superstitions  even  extend  to 
matters  of  business  and  chance  with  the  country 
people.  The  methods  employed  by  these  witches 
are  curious  and  ridiculous.  Many  claim,  and  the 
claims  are  accepted  as  true,  to  be  able  by  slipping 
into  the  presence  of  an  enemy  and  burning  a  certain 
kind  of  herb  or  vegetable,  to  place  the  person  in 
their  power.  In  some  cases  persons  so  bewitched 
assume  a  form  of  madness,  which  unfits  them  for 
service,  and  sometimes  makes  them  dangerous. 
Many  of  these  people  claim  to  cure  disease  by 
prayer. 

There  are  few  diseases  among  the  ignorant  coun- 
try people  attributed  to  legitimate  causes.  They 
are  believed  to  be  due  to  the  influence  of  witches; 
to  be  ill  from  any  cause  is  to  be  bewitched.  It  is 
one  of  the  many  superstitions  inherited  from  In- 
dian ancestors,  and  is  deep  rooted  iji  the  minds  of 
the  people. 

To  predict  the  elimination  or  uprooting  of  these 
primitive  customs  would  be  hazardous,  as  they  are 
countenanced,  fostered  in  the  minds  of  the  people 
and  encouraged  by  the  priests.     They  preach  and 


SUPERSTITIONS  1G9 

teach  the  supernatural,  and  in  the  rural  districts 
the  clergy  sell  ''santitos"  (small  images  repre- 
senting saints),  and  medallions  that  are  alleged  to 
have  been  consecrated  by  them,  as  cures  and  pre- 
ventatives for  all  kinds  of  diseases  and  maladies. 
Sometimes  when  a  liberal  donation  has  been  made 
to  the  church,  the  donor  is  given  one  of  these  con- 
secrated objects,  which  is  highly  prized,  and  the 
curative  powers  of  which  are  never  doubted  by  the 
possessor.  Although  the  laws  of  the  Catholic 
church  prohibit  its  members  from  eating  meat  on 
Fridays,  the  priests  sell  privileges,  called  *'bulas," 
which  permit  purchasers  to  eat  whatever  kind  of 
food  they  like  on  that  day.  A  very  poor  person  can 
secure  a  bula  for  fifty  centavos,  while  a  well-to-do 
member  will  pay  according  to  his  ability,  and  very 
rich  people  in  Valparaiso  and  Santiago  have  paid 
as  much  as  one  thousand  pesos  for  the  privilege  of 
violating  a  fundamental  law  of  the  church.  With 
the  encouragement  of  such  beliefs  and  practices  by 
those  who  are  accepted  as  teachers  and  who  should 
stand  as  exemplars  of  moral  and  intellectual  prog- 
ress, it  is  little  wonder  that  the  masses  among  the 
poor  and  ignorant  cling  tenaciously  to  customs  that 
seem  obsolete  in  this  age  of  enlightened  progress. 

Superstitions  are  generally  prevalent  among  the 
better  classes  also,  particularly  those  engaged  in 
agricultural  pursuits.  It  is  believed  that  sowing, 
reaping,  planting,  wood  cutting,  grafting  or  prun- 
ing trees,  storing  of  crops,  etc.,  should  be  done  dur- 
ing the  last  quarter  of  the  moon.  Seed  planted 
during  the  new  moon  will  not  grow,  crops  harvested 
will  be  damaged,  trees  pruned  will  die,  etc.  The 
weather  for  the  following  month  is  always  judged 


170  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

by  the  Indian  sig'n  indicated  in  the  position  of  the 
new  moon  on  its  first  appearance. 

A  curious  superstitions  custom  in  Chile  is  the 
manner  of  marking  the  place  where  a  person  has 
been  killed  by  accident  or  murdered.  Along  the 
country  roads  one  frequently  comes  upon  a  crude 
sort  of  altar  by  the  roadside,  which  marks  the  last 
resting  place  of  some  victim  of  violence.  It  may 
consist  of  a  little  enclosure  made  of  rough  boards 
and  covered  with  the  same  material,  in  which 
lighted  tapers  are  kept  burning  practically  all  the 
time.  In  each  of  these  places  there  is  a  small  box 
for  the  reception  of  coins,  and  many  passers-by 
add  small  contributions  to  the  collection,  and  when 
the  candles  have  burned  out,  the  money  in  the  re- 
ceptacle is  used  to  purchase  more.  A  strange 
feature  of  this  practice  is  that  no  sneak  thief,  of 
which  there  are  many  in  every  community,  will  ever 
rob  one  of  these  houses  of  the  dead.  He  has  a  su- 
perstitious belief  that  the  money  is  sacred,  and  that 
the  one  who  steals  it  will  be  cursed. 

The  cry  of  the  ^^chuncho,"  a  sort  of  night  owl,  is 
regarded  as  an  evil  omen  by  all  classes.  People 
who  are  otherwise  apparently  sane  on  hearing  the 
cry  of  this  bird  in  the  night  indulge  in  actions 
indicative  of  a  peculiar  form  of  madness.  If  in 
bed  they  leap  out,  get  down  upon  their  knees,  cross 
themselves,  pray,  beat  their  chests  and  appeal  to 
God  to  save  them  from  impending  calamity.  The 
origin  or  significance  of  this  particular  superstition 
has  never  been  satisfactorily  explained. 

One  of  the  superstitious  customs  that  still  pre- 
vails, and  which  is  practiced  on  religious  feast  days, 
especially   that   of    San    Juan,    is    fortune    telling. 


SUPERSTITIONS  171 

Matrimonial  fortunes  are  told  with  three  potatoes, 
one  of  which  is  peeled,  from  one,  half  the  peeling  is 
removed,  and  one  is  left  in  its  natural  state.  These 
potatoes  are  placed  in  a  dark  room,  and  the  woman 
seeking  her  fortune  is  directed  to  go  into  the  room, 
and  to  take  the  first  potato  with  which  her  hand 
comes  in  contact.  If  it  is  the  peeled  potato,  she  is 
to  marry  a  poor  man ;  should  it  be  the  half-peeled 
tuber,  she  will  marry  a  man  who  can  clothe  and 
support  her,  and  should  she  be  lucky  enough  to  se- 
cure the  unpeeled  potato,  she  is  destined  to  marry 
a  man  who  can  keep  her  in  comfort  and  plenty.  So 
firm  is  the  faith  of  many  of  the  people  in  the  ful- 
fillment of  these  superstitious  prophecies  that  they 
invariably  preserve  the  potatoes  thus  drawn,  to  be 
eaten  on  their  wedding  day.  Another  superstition 
among  the  country  women  is  that  of  washing  their 
hair  at  daylight  on  the  morning  of  the  feast  of  San 
Juan.  They  believe  that  the  practice  will  cause  the 
hair  to  grow  luxuriantly  during  the  year. 


MAERIAGES 

IN  Chile  marriage  is  simply  a  contract,  entered 
into  between  two  persons  of  opposite  sex,  re- 
garding exclusive  possession,  society  and  service, 
and  who  by  a  civil,  legal  ceremony  are  pronounced 
husband  and  wife.  The  contract  does  not  by  im- 
plication, or  actually,  necessarily  include  protec- 
tion or  affection.  This  does  not  refer  to  marriages 
among  the  better  classes,  where  money,  social  posi- 
tion or  advantage  are  taken  into  consideration,  but 
the  poor,  or  middle  classes,  with  whom  marriage  is 
a  matter  of  convenience.  With  these  people  fi- 
delity is  not  expected  or  demanded.  The  women 
have  little  to  claim  their  attention,  beyond  domestic 
duties  and  personal  adornment.  Inherited  char- 
acteristics and  the  influence  of  environments  make 
them  an  easy  prey  to  flattery,  in  the  dispensing  of 
which  the  Chilenos  are  artful  and  crafty.  Evil 
motives,  wrapped  in  delusive  words,  suggesting  no 
interpretation  of  their  true  meaning,  are  the  com- 
mon weapons  used  by  the  men  to  ensnare  trusting- 
hearts  guided  by  uneducated  minds.  Manly  pro- 
tection to  woman  is  so  rare  in  the  sub-stratum  of 
Chilean  society  as  to  be  almost  unknown. 

Twenty-five  years  of  age  constitutes  a.  legal  ma- 
jority for  both  sexes,  after  which  marriage  may  be 
contracted  at  the  pleasure  of  the  interested  parties. 
A  boy  of  twelve  or  a  girl  of  fourteen  years  may 
legally  marry  with  the  consent  of  parents  or  guard- 

172 


MARRIAGES  173 

ian.  Once  married  the  law  declares  them  of  legal 
age. 

Previous  to  the  year  1885,  marriage  ceremonies 
were  celebrated  only  in  the  Catholic  churches, 
wliich  was  recognized  by  the  government  as  legal. 
After  a  prolonged  and  bitter  discussion,  a  law  was 
passed  on  January  10,  1884,  requiring  a  civil  reg- 
istry of  all  births,  deaths  and  marriages,  and  which 
dejDrived  the  church  of  the  right  to  legalize  mar- 
riages. This  act,  which  went  into  effect  January  1, 
1885,  recognizes  as  legal  only  marriages  solemnized 
by  the  "Oficial  del  Registro  Civil,"  residing  in  the 
same  municipality  or  sub-delegation  as  the  contract- 
ing parties.  The  ceremony  must  be  witnessed  by  two 
or  more  persons.  Although  a  marriage  ceremony 
performed  by  the  priests  has  no  legal  import  or 
effect,  women  of  the  Catholic  faith  always  demand 
it,  and  most  legal  weddings  are  celebrated  by  two 
ceremonies.  Even  yet  in  some  instances  the  civil, 
or  legal  service  is  disregarded,  and  only  the  church 
ceremony  performed.  Such  marriages  are  not 
recognized  in  the  courts,  however,  and  in  case  of 
inheritance  by  the  children  born  of  such  a  union, 
they  are  barred  from  sharing  in  property  rights. 

There  was  much  conflict  and  contention  between 
Church  and  State  during  the  first  few  years  of  the 
civil  registry  law.  The  priests  preached  violently 
against  it,  directing  their  efforts  principally  to  the 
female  members,  who  are  the  loyal  supporters  of 
all  church  organizations,  and  with  whom  they  made 
the  law  offensive  and  objectionable,  by  refusing  in 
many  instances  confession  and  absolution  to  all 
those  who  were  married  according  to  the  civil  law 
only.     They  were  given  the  ultimatum  of  defying 


174  PEOGRESSIVE  CHILE 

tlie  law  of  the  land  and  accepting  a  clmrcli  mar- 
riage ceremony  as  binding,  or  excommunication. 
The  result  of  these  church  teachings  was,  that  for 
several  years  after  the  law  went  into  effect  most 
Catholics,  and  especially  those  representing  the 
aristocracy,  were  married  by  the  church  only,  not 
realizing,  apparently,  the  complications  that  would 
result  from  such  defiance  of  law,  until  their  children 
were  declared  illegitimate  by  the  courts.  This 
created  a  dilemma,  and  a  serious  effort  was  made 
to  legalize  their  marriages  and  legitimatize  their 
children  by  a  repeal  or  modification  of  the  law,  but 
without  success.  In  the  meantime  the  more  radical 
members  of  the  clergy  declared  that  it  were  better 
to  live  together  as  husband  and  wife  under  sanc- 
tion of  the  divine  order,  than  to  resort  to  civil  mar- 
riage. As  a  compromise  members  of  the  Catholic 
church  are  now  married  before  the  ^'Eegistro 
Civil,"  and  afterwards  in  the  Catholic  church. 
But  even  now,  in  the  rural  districts  of  Chile,  many 
people  are  married  by  the  church  only. 

The  party  constituting  the  Liberal-Alliance, 
which  was  in  power,  and  organized  the  ministry  at 
the  sitting  of  the  Ordinary  Session  of  the  National 
Congress  in  June,  1904,  in  outlining  a  programme 
for  Ihe  party,  declared  itself  in  favor  of  a  law  that 
would  prohibit  the  church  from  celebrating  mar- 
riages, without  the  presentation  of  a  certificate  at- 
testing the  fact  that  the  marriage  had  been  pre- 
viously celebrated  before  a  Civil  Registrar.  The 
Conservative  i:)arty  in  Congress  announced  through 
its  leaders  its  intention  to  vigorously  oppose  the 
measure,  showing  that  there  is  still  a  political  ele- 


MARRIAGES  175 

ment  in  Chile  in  favor  of  empowering  the  church 
with  authority  to  legalize  marriages. 

In  discussing  this  phase  of  social  life,  reference 
is  made  to  the  common  people  of  the  country,  and 
not  to  the  rich  and  educated  few,  where  wealth, 
family  connections,  or  social  position  may  enter 
into  and  influence  the  question  of  matrimonial  alli- 
ances, and  among  whom  wedding  ceremonies  are 
conducted  much  as  they  are  in  other  civilized  coun- 
tries. 

Courtship  is  short;  there  are  no  long  years  of 
waiting.  Once  the  question  is  decided  the  matter 
is  consummated  and  all  doubts  as  to  congeniality 
or  advisability  are  left  for  future  consideration. 
The  custom  of  courtship  is  the  same  as  that  pre- 
vailing in  other  Spanish-American  countries.  It 
consists  more  in  impassioned  glances,  smiles  and 
actions  on  the  part  of  the  participants  to  attract 
each  other  than  in  conversation  or  a  discussion  of 
mutual  interests.  Sometimes  the  proposition  is 
made  and  accepted  after  the  first  meeting,  and  not 
infrequently  it  is  arranged  by  the  families  of  the 
interested  parties.  Whether  the  majority  of  mar- 
riages in  Chile  are  contracted  from  motives  of  af- 
fection, passion,  or  material  interests  is  difficult  to 
determine.  There  would  seem  to  be  little  love  in 
the  motive  that  inspires,  for  among  the  poorer 
classes  the  object  appears  to  be  mutual  care,  serv- 
ice and  protection.  During  religious  festivals, 
where  men  and  women  are  brought  into  close  rela- 
tionship and  intimate  association,  under  the  influ- 
ence of  liquor,  marriages  are  generally  arranged, 
proposals  accepted,  and  bans   simultaneously  pub- 


176  PKOGRESSIVE  CHILE 

lished  by  the  contracting  parties  and  tlie  priests. 
Their  past  lives  have  been  more  or  less  the  same 
and  there  are  no  sacrifices  on  the  part  of  either. 
There  is  no  demonstration  to  make  the  event  con- 
sijiciions ;  what  to  expect  and  how  to  meet  it  are 
conditions  well  known  to  both.  There  is  no  foolish 
sentiment  exhibited.  The  wedding  is  consummated 
and  celebrated  because  it  is  mutually  convenient. 
Their  standards  of  honor,  honesty,  fidelity  and 
veracity  are  about  equal.  Should  either  of  the  con- 
tracting parties  hesitate  or  refuse  to  comply  with 
the  agreement,  he  or  she,  as  the  case  may  be,  is 
accused  before  the  priest  of  the  parish  church,  who 
commands  the  delinquent  to  respond,  and  the  mar- 
riage is  celebrated  at  once.  Protests  are  in  vain, 
the  marriage  contract  once  having  been  announced, 
like  the  sentence  in  court,  must  be  carried  out,  un- 
der ecclesiastical  authority.  Illegitimacy  among 
the  poor  of  Chile  is  no  disgrace,  and  is  not  a  bar,  or 
even  a  disadvantage  when  it  comes  to  the  question 
of  marriage.  Children  born  to  women  previous  to 
marriage  are  treated  by  the  husband  upon  terms  of 
equality  with  those  of  the  legal  union.  An  examina- 
tion of  the  baptismal  record  of  the  churches  in  the 
country  districts  will  reveal  the  fact  that  a  large 
per  cent,  of  the  children  are  inscribed  as  "El  padre 
desconocido"  (the  father  is  unknown). 

Be  it  said  to  the  credit  of  the  women  in  the  sub- 
stratum, as  well  as  in  the  upper-crust  of  Chilean 
society,  that,  as  a  rule,  they  respect  their  marriage 
vows.  With  the  men  it  is  the  rare  exception  in- 
stead of  the  rule.  After  marriage,  people  of  the 
common   class    resume   their   accustomed   life   and 


MARRIAGES  177 

habits,  living  as  a  rule  under  tlie  paternal  or  ma- 
ternal roof  of  one  or  the  other.  The  man  is  not 
necessarily  expected  to  contribute  to  the  support  of 
his  wife,  the  custom  being  for  that  member  of  the 
family  to  provide  maintenance  for  the  pair,  and  in- 
variably to  support  herself.  They  seem  to  enjoy 
a  careless,  bohemian  sort  of  contentment  that  meets 
the  requirements  of  their  simple  lives.  Little  is 
exjDected,  each  seems  entirely  satisfied  with  the  acts 
of  the  other  and  the  stream  of  domestic  harmony 
runs  on  uninterruptedly.  Such  is  life  among  these 
simple  folk,  who  mate  as  do  the  birds,  and  with 
whom  mutual  interests,  simplicity  and  natural  in- 
stincts are  the  controlling  influences  in  matrimo- 
nial alliances. 

An  inventoiy  of  all  property  possessed  by  each 
of  the  contracting  parties  at  the  date  of  the  wed- 
ding is  carefully  taken.  It  may  bo  a  horse,  a  cow, 
pig,  fowls,  a  bed,  or  other  articles.  This  property 
does  not  enter  into  the  marriage  contract  and  be- 
come a  part  of  the  common  fund.  On  the  wedding 
day  the  bride  and  groom  are  accompanied  to  the 
church  by  friends  and  neighbors,  usually  on  horse- 
back. There  is  singing  and  music  of  guitars,  firing 
of  shooting  crackers  and  guns  and  other  demon- 
strations. There  is  frequent  drinking  to  the  health 
of  the  couple,  with  ''viva  los  novios."  Anyone 
who  desires  may  participate  in  the  wedding  feast, 
as  all  refreshments  are  disposed  of  at  a  price.  The 
profits  on  the  feast  are  given  to  the  bride  as  a  wed- 
ding gift.  These  celebrations  sometimes  last  three 
or  four  days  and  nights,  with  drinking,  singing  and 
dancing.     Among  the  middle  classes  wedding  cere- 


178  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

monies  are  tlie  same,  except  tliat  invitations  are  not 
quite  so  general.  And  among  the  more  prosperous 
of  the  middle  classes,  the  refreshments  served  at 
the  wedding  feasts  are  free. 

A  married  woman  never  goes  by  the  name  of  her 
husband.  If  Sehorita  Carmen  Valenzuela  is  mar- 
ried to  Don  Jacinto  Nunez,  she  is  afterwards  Se- 
iiora  Carmen  Valenzuela  de  N;  if  she  becomes  a 
widow  she  retains  the  foregoing  name  with  the  ad- 
dition of  the  letter  V  before  the  de  N,  meaning 
widow  of  Nunez. 


BIRTHS  AND  DEATHS 

BIRTHS  and  deatlis  do  not  constitute  an  attrac- 
tive subject,  but  a  description  of  country  life  in 
Chile  would  be  incomplete  without  some  mention  of 
the  entrance  into  the  world  and  the  exit  of  the  peo- 
ple whose  customs  and  characteristics  are  under 
discussion. 

BIRTHS. 

The  advent  of  an  atom  of  humanity  into  the 
world  in  Chile,  is  not  considered  an  event  of  suffi- 
cient importance  to  cause  any  disturbance  of  the 
current  of  affairs  that  flows  on  with  customary  in- 
difference. The  fact  is  accepted  and  recorded,  but 
there  is  neither  expression  of  regret  nor  rejoicing. 
The  parents  seem  to  regard  the  circumstance  from 
a  purely  economic  point  of  view,  and  not  one  to  be 
invested  with  sentiment  or  feeling.  It  means  an- 
other member  of  the  family  to  feed  and  clothe,  and 
another  pair  of  hands  that  in  time  may  serve,  and 
contribute  something  to  the  scanty  household  sup- 
plies. The  poor  country  women  have  no  medical 
attention  in  childbirth,  and  in  most  instances  they 
lack  the  attention  and  necessary  pro\dsions  to  pro- 
tect the  life  of  mother  and  child.  They  rarely  go  to 
bed,  but  wrapped  in  a  heavy  manta,  sit  on  the  floor 
or  ground,  as  the  case  may  be,  for  a  few  days,  near 
a  fire  kept  burning  in  a  "bracero."  The  only 
medicine  they  take  is  a  little  burnt  sugar  in  hot 

179 


180  PEOGRESSIVE  CHILE 

water,  seasoned  with  aromatic  leaves.  In  a  few 
days  they  resume  their  domestic  duties,  and  life 
flows  on  in  the  even  current  of  its  way,  the  addi- 
tion to  the  family  being  regarded  as  inconsequen- 
tial. 

The  children  of  the  poor  are  inured  to  hardship 
from  the  time  of  birth.  In  infancy  they  are 
wrapped  up  like  little  mummies,  receiving  little 
maternal  attention,  usually  being  committed  to  the 
care  of  older  children,  when  there  are  such  in  the 
family.  When  old  enough  to  walk,  they  are  per- 
mitted to  run  where  they  please,  characterized 
chiefly  by  the  scanty  clothing  they  wear,  and  in- 
attention they  receive.  These  neglected  infants 
rarely  cry  or  complain,  learning  early  in  life  that 
such  demonstrations  of  dissatisfaction  with  their 
lot  avails  nothing.  The  mothers  of  these  children 
are  not  cruel  or  inhuman  in  the  treatment  of  their 
offspring,  except  from  neglect  and  lack  of  care 
through  ignorance. 

DEATHS. 

Away  from  the  cities,  where  pride  or  custom 
holds  sway,  a  death  is  little  more  than  a  signal  for 
a  crowd  to  assemble  at  the  home  of  the  deceased  for 
a  drunken  spree.  In  case  of  death  the  interest  and 
sympathy  manifested  by  friends  and  neighbors  de- 
pends upon  the  amount  of  money  forthcoming  for 
the  ])urchase  of  chiclia.  Should  there  be  liberal 
provisions  for  this  important  feature  of  the  funeral 
service  a  large  attendance  is  assured.  Should  the 
death  be  that  of  a  baby  it  is  generally  understood 
that  there  is  to  be  a  grand  feast.  The  dead  infant, 
robed  in  white  and  bedecked  with  flowers,  is  placed 


BIRTHS  AND  DEATHS  181 

in  a  sitting  position  upon  an  improvised  altar, 
where,  surrounded  with  burning  candles  it  remains 
for  twenty-four  hours.  During  this  time  there  is 
much  drinking  and  singing  by  those  who  assemble 
to  mourn  the  death  of  the  child.  ^Usually  on  the  day 
following  the  death,  the  body  is  wrapped  in  a  cloth 
and  placed  in  a  candle  or  soap  box,  which  serves  as 
a  coffin,  and  carried  to  the  cemetery.  The  proces- 
sion is  accompanied  by  women  who  sing,  and  add  to 
their  vocal  efforts  the  music  of  guitars.  The  crowd 
often  stops  en  route  to  the  cemetery  to  drink  and 
indulge  in  demonstrations.  Women  never  accom- 
pany the  funeral  procession  of  an  adult. 

There  are  never  any  preparations  in  advance  for 
a  burial,  and  the  interment  is  made  in  the  crudest 
possible  manner.  The  pall-bearers  carry  with  them 
a  crowbar  and  shovel,  and  the  corpse  waits  while 
the  grave  is  being  prepared  after  arrival  at  the 
cemetery.  Graves  are  dug  anywhere  those  prepar- 
ing them  niay  choose,  not  infrequently  in  the  same 
place  where  other  burials  have  been  made,  and  if 
human  bones  are  encountered  in  the  excavation  they 
are  thrown  aside  as  so  many  stones.  After  the 
corpse  is  laid  to  rest,  perhaps  to  the  great  disturb- 
ance of  another  previously  buried  in  the  same  spot, 
the  crowd  departs  to  some  place  where  more  liquor 
can  be  secured,  and  where  the  final  celebration  of 
the  event  takes  place. 

Should  a  poor  man  die,  leaving  no  money  with 
which  to  provide  the  customary  drinks  at  his  fu- 
neral, and  having  no  friends  who  will  perform  that 
very  necessary  service  for  him,  the  manner  of  his 
burial  is  something  like  that  accorded  to  animals. 
The  method  of  conveying  the  bodies  of  these  un- 


182  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

fortunates  to  their  last  resting  place,  in  many  in- 
stances is  not  unlike  that  of  taking  a  sack  of  pota- 
toes to  market.  The  corpse  is  tied  upon  the  back 
of  a  mule,  and  with  head  nodding,  hands  and  feet 
waving  in  the  air,  as  if  in  mute  protest  against  the 
custom  of  administering  the  last  rites  of  the  poor, 
they  are  conveyed  to  the  cemetery  by  someone  to 
whom  the  disagreeable  duty  is  delegated.  A  hole 
large  enough  to  receive  the  body  is  dug  in  some  ob- 
scure corner  of  the  cemetery,  and  without  a  coffin, 
w^ithout  ceremony  or  service  of  any  kind,  the  un- 
fortunate is  committed  to  earth,  which  receives  him 
back  to  its  bosom,  as  it  does  all  those  who  inhabit 
it  for  a  brief  period. 

Without  plan,  ornament,  or  official  keepers,  the 
cemeteries  of  rural  Chile  present  an  unattractive 
prospect,  and  a  scene  of  dreary  desolation.  Usu- 
ally they  are  nothing  more  than  enclosed  plots  of 
ground,  neglected  and  overrun  with  weeds  and 
brambles,  without  markings  to  indicate  the  location 
of  individual  graves.  There  is  little  reverence  for 
those  who  journey  to  those  dreary  spots  for  the  last 
time. 

In  the  many  sharp  contrasts  presented  in  the  lives 
of  the  different  classes  in  Chile,  none  are  more 
striking  than  that  shown  in  the  disposition  of  the 
dead,  and  in  the  ceremonies  attendant  upon  fu- 
nerals. In  the  cities,  where  the  rich  and  cultured 
bury  their  dead,  the  cemeteries  are  beautifully  kept, 
and  adorned  with  flowers  and  shrubbery,  and 
magnificent  tombs  and  monuments  mark  the  last 
resting  places  of  wealth  and  respectability.  Elabo- 
rate, solemn  and  impressive  services  are  held  at  the 
home   of  the  deceased,  or  in  church,   the  body  is 


BIRTHS  AND  DEATHS  183 

borne  to  the  grave  in  a  funeral  car,  while  extra 
coaches  and  hearses  are  employed  in  carrying  the 
floral  offerings  and  decorations  provided  by  the 
family  and  friends. 

The  civil  register  law  conferred  great  benefits 
upon  the  poor,  in  the  matter  of  births  and  deaths. 
Previous  to  that  there  was  no  record  of  births,  ex- 
cept in  the  church  records,  made  by  the  priests 
when  they  found  it  agreeable  and  convenient. 
Then,  as  now,  a  large  per  cent,  of  the  children  born 
were  illegitimate,  and  if  the  parents  did  not  want 
the  birth  inscribed  in  the  record,  it  was  conveniently 
omitted.  Then  there  was  no  law  to  compel  those  in 
charge  of  the  cemeteries  to  issue  burial  permits,  and 
usually  the  priests  demanded  a  fee  before  permis- 
sion was  given  to  bury  the  Catholic  dead  in  the  con- 
secrated grounds,  while  non-Catholics  were  denied 
the  right  of  burial  in  the  cemeteries  on  any  terms. 

Fortunately  the  civil  law  makes  the  registration 
of  births,  deaths  and  burials  free  and  compulsory. 
In  every  municipal  district  there  is  a  civil  registrar, 
whose  business  it  is  to  keep  these  records,  and  to 
issue  burial  permits.  Private  burials  are  prohibited 
by  law. 


SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES 

TFTERE  is  no  compulsory  educational  law  in  CMle. 
Several  attempts  have  been  made  to  secure  the 
passage  of  such  a  measure,  but  without  success. 
The  failure  to  secure  such  an  enactment  may  be 
attributed  to  the  indifference  of  the  majority  of  the 
citizens  of  the  Republic,  who  take  little  or  no  inter- 
est in  the  question  of  providing  better  facilities  for 
educating  the  youth  of  the  country. 

Primary  instruction  is  provided  by  the  govern- 
ment, which  maintains  two  kinds  of  schools  in  this 
class,  elementary  and  superior.  In  the  elementary, 
the  alphabet,  reading,  writing,  gymnastics,  singing, 
and  the  first  rules  of  arithmetic,  geography  and 
grammar  are  taught.  In  the  superior,  in  addition 
to  the  branches  taught  in  the  primary  grades,  in- 
structions are  given  in  manual  training,  physical 
and  natural  science,  and  other  general  studies, 
which  prepare  the  pupils  for  entrance  into  the 
secondary  colleges,  "liceos,"  and  other  higher  edu- 
cational institutions.  The  number  of  pupils  in  at- 
tendance at  these  schools  is  about  one  hundred 
thousand. 

Teachers  in  the  primary  grades,  masculine  and 
feminine,  are  prepared  in  five  normal  schools,  lo- 
cated in  different  parts  of  the  country.  When  they 
have  finished  their  studies  and  passed  their  exami- 
nations, they  receive  the  title  of  ''Professor"  from 
the  State  as  evidence  of  their  qualification  for  teach- 

184 


SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES     185 

ing.  Primary  teachers  receive  a  salary  of  1,200 
pesos  per  year.  After  ten  years'  service  they  are 
entitled  to  a  pension  from  the  government,  and 
after  thirty  years  they  can  retire  on  full  pay. 

UNIVEKSITY    OF    CHILE. 

Previous  to  the  formation  of  the  Eepublic,  the 
only  institutions  in  Chile  possessing  facilities  for  in- 
struction in  the  sciences  and  higher  branches  of  edu- 
cation were  the  monasteries,  the  school  at  San  Filipe 
being  recognized  as  a  national  university.  But  the 
monastic  education  was  not  in  harmony  with  the 
modern  republican  ideas  of  the  progressive  Chile- 
nos,  and  the  San  Filipe  institution  was  abolished 
by  official  decree  in  1839,  and  in  its  place  there  was 
established  a  group  of  schools  under  the  name  of 
the  University  of  Chile.  The  new  institution  which 
was  formally  opened  in  1812,  marked  an  era  in  the 
educational  system  of  the  country.  The  original 
building,  in  Santiago,  fronting  on  the  broad  Ala- 
meda, with  its  rows  of  trees  and  wide  park-way, 
adorned  with  statues  of  national  heroes,  is  a  fine 
architectural  creation  of  the  Spanish  style,  with  in- 
terior patios  and  galleries.  The  University,  which 
has  an  annual  attendance  of  from  1,500  to  2,000  stu- 
dents has  special  and  well  equipped  departments  of 
Philosophy  and  Letters,  Law  and  Political  Science, 
Medicine,  Pharmacy,  Dentistry,  Engineering,  Archi- 
tecture, Pedagogy  and  a  Normal  school. 

The  State  also  maintains  schools  of  secondary 
and  superior  instruction,  the  latter  being  under  the 
direction  of  the  University,  which  maintains  thirty- 
six  different  colleges  in  the  Republic,  and  gives 
courses  in  practical  and  special  branches,  and  also 


186  PEOGRESSIVE  CHILE 

industrial  training.  In  the  first  six  years  of  the 
course  in  these  colleges  the  pupils  are  instructed  in 
branches  designated  in  the  program  prepared  by 
the  Council  of  Instruction,  a  corporation  whose  mem- 
bers are  appointed  by  the  government,  and  which 
is  required  to  hold  weekly  sessions. 

The  course  of  instruction  in  the  secondary  insti- 
tutions consists  of  the  following,  worked  out  ac- 
cording to  the  German  concentric  system:  Physical 
and  natural  science,  mathematics,  Spanish,  French, 
German  and  English  languages,  drawing,  geogra- 
phy, history,  gj-mnastics  and  singing.  The  pupils 
who  pass  the  general  and  final  examinations  satis- 
factorily, receive  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts, 
which  admits  them  to  the  superior  courses  of  Law, 
Medicine,  Engineering,  Agriculture,  etc.,  in  the  Uni- 
versity. 

All  this  instruction  is  provided  by  the  State,  free 
of  expense,  except  250  pesos  per  year  which  the 
pupil  is  required  to  pay  for  board.  The  govern- 
ment has  secured  a  competent  corps  of  teachers  and 
instructors  for  the  secondary  colleges  and  the  Uni- 
versity, the  majority  of  them  coming  from  Germany 
and  Belgium  under  contract.  Their  pay  is  about 
6,000  pesos,  equal  to  $2,000  United  States  currency, 
annually. 

Chile  also  maintains  a  number  of  Industrial  and 
Commercial  schools.  Among  these  special  institu- 
tions are  four  Commercial  and  Industrial,  three 
Agricultural,  three  Mining,  and  two  professional 
schools  for  women,  an  Art  Institute  and  a  school  of 
Fishery.  The  pupils  attending  these  institutions 
are  trained  in  the  various  professions  and  indus- 
tries taught  in  the  respective  schools.     This  part  of 


SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES     187 

the  system  of  public  instruction,  especially  in  the 
establishments  in  which  the  poorer  classes  receive 
their  education,  is  very  deficient.  But  this  particu- 
lar branch  is  now  receiving  the  attention  of  the  gov- 
ernment authorities,  and  there  is  a  prospect  of  de- 
cided imin'ovement  in  the  standard  of  these  schools. 
One  of  the  defects  of  these  liceos  is  the  fact  that  the 
number  of  pupils  in  each  is  so  great  that  it  is  im- 
possible for  the  masters  to  hear  all  the  recitations 
of  each  pupil,  or  to  give  them  individual  attention 
in  their  studies. 

In  addition  to  the  public  schools  and  higher  edu- 
cational institutions  maintained  by  the  State,  there 
are  many  private  schools  and  colleges,  which  offer 
fairly  good  facilities  for  general  and  special  educa- 
tional training.  The  Catholic  church  provides  many 
schools  that  are  well  equipped  for  primary  educa- 
tion. 

A  weak  feature  of  the  educational  system  of  Chile, 
which  possesses  many  excellent  and  commendable 
qualities,  is  the  fact  that  the  Stat.e  schools  are 
crowded  with  pupils  from  the  wealthy  families,  to 
the  neglect  and  exclusion  of  the  children  of  the  poor. 
The  result  is  the  education  of  a  class  in  which  the 
majority  are  ambitious  to  engage  in  the  professions, 
rather  than  in  the  trades,  agricultural  and  commer- 
cial life. 

What  Chile  needs  for  the  development  of  her 
varied  and  rich  resources  is  engineers,  mechanics, 
and  men  trained  in  agricultural  and  commercial 
pursuits,  instead  of  musicians,  artists,  professors 
and  politicians,  for  whom  the  government  is  ex- 
pected to  provide  employment. 

The  fact  that  over  sixty  per  cent,  of  the  popula- 


188  PEOGRESSIVE  CHILE 

tion  is  illiterate  is  due  to  various  causes.  The 
Chilean  Roto  is  without  amhition  for  himself  or  his 
family,  and  until  education  is  made  compulsory  he 
will  not  attempt  to  lift  his  children  above  the  low 
intellectual  level  in  which  he  and  his  ancestors  for 
generations  have  been  content  to  live.  He  has  yet 
to  learn  the  importance  to  himself,  to  the  State  and 
society,  of  education,  and  mental  training.  An- 
other drawback  to  primary  education  in  the  rural 
districts  is  the  geographical  and  climatic  conditions 
of  the  country.  In  many  places  the  territory  is 
sparsely  settled  and  schoolhouses  far  apart.  The 
country  is  mountainous,  and  in  the  winter  season 
streams  become  raging  torrents  from  the  excessive 
rains,  making  journeys  across  country  impossible 
for  children  of  school  age. 


LANGUAGE 

SPANISH  is  the  language  of  Chile,  as  it  is  of  all 
South  American  countries,  except  Brazil,  but  in 
Chile  it  has  taken  on  idioms  until  it  differs  in  many 
particulars  from  the  pure  Castilian.  Like  all  Latin 
languages  it  lends  itself  to  elaborate  speech,  pleas- 
ing compliment,  plentiful  platitude,  vague  and  un- 
certain meaning  and  is  a  charming  means  for  the 
exchange  of  polite  pleasantries.  It  possesses  quali- 
ties that  commend  it  especially  for  diplomatic  usage, 
as  the  ordinary  sentence,  written  or  verbally 
expressed,  can  be  construed  to  mean  one  thing  or 
another  to  suit  the  desire  or  convenience  of  the  per- 
son giving  it  utterance.  These  qualities,  however, 
render  it  unsatisfactory  as  a  commercial  language, 
which  should  be  direct  and  definite  in  meaning. 

Perhaps  no  other  language  is  so  easily  acquired 
by  foreigners,  and  none  is  more  beautiful  and  at- 
tractive when  correctly  spoken  and  properly  enun- 
ciated than  Spanish.  There  are  no  silent  letters, 
and  each  word  is  pronounced  as  it  is  spelled.  The 
verbs  are  irregular,  but  once  the  rules  of  grammar 
are  learned,  it  is  a  matter  of  comparative  ease  to 
acquire  facility  of  speech. 

The  Chilenos,  like  all  Spanish  speaking  people, 
emphasize  all  verbal  expressions  with  elaborate 
gestures.  Their  gesticulations  are  graceful,  and  in- 
stead of  being  objectionable,  are  attractive.  They 
are  born  orators,  and  the  average  Chileno  can  de- 

189 


190  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

liver  a  most  effective  speech  on  any  and  all  occa- 
sions, on  short  notice  or  with  small  provocation. 
Even  small  boys  will  harangue  a  crowd  with  well- 
chosen  words  formed  into  beautiful  sentences,  and 
delivered  with  splendid  oratorical  effect.  This  is 
true  in  the  larger  sense  also,  and  the  speeches  de- 
livered on  public  occasions,  and  in  the  legislative 
halls  are  as  a  rule  excellent  examples  of  the  art  of 
oratory.  The  meaning'  is  often  vague,  and  the  lan- 
guage ambiguous,  but  the  diction  good.  A  speech 
delivered  in  Spanish  in  a  well  modulated  voice,  em- 
phasized with  sweeping  and  graceful  gestures,  is  both 
pleasing  and  dramatic  in  effect. 

In  Valparaiso,  the  principal  port  and  commer- 
cial city  in  the  Republic,  English  is  more  generally 
used  in  the  transaction  of  business  than  any  other 
language,  Spanish  not  excepted. 


COUETS  AND  LEGAL  PROCEDURE 

IN  tlie  formation  of  the  Republic  of  Chile,  the  sys- 
tem of  law  courts  and  legal  procedure  was  pat- 
terned after  that  prevailing  in  Spain,  and  included 
all  of  its  antique,  slow  and  cumbersome  processes. 
The  Spanish  law  was  modeled  after  the  Roman 
code,  and  the  custom  of  the  race  to  cling  tenaciously 
to  precedent,  seldom  accepting  innovation  or 
change  in  any  practice  once  established,  even  to 
meet  the  exigencies  of  changed  conditions,  mani- 
fested itself  in  the  administration  of  law  in  Spain. 
So,  Chile  inherited  and  adopted  the  system  with  all 
its  crudities,  slow  processes  and  impracticable  fea- 
tures. The  Roman  law  was  improved  and  amplified 
to  meet  new  conditions  and  requirements,  and  Spain 
made  changes  in  her  laws,  but  Chile  continues  under 
the  old  and  obsolete  system  copied  from  the  mother 
country. 

The  courts,  with  their  respective  jurisdiction,  are 
as  follows : 

FIRST. 

Juzgado  del  Distrito  (District  Judges).  This 
court,  first  in  the  order,  has  jurisdiction  in  civil 
cases  up  to  an  amount  equal  to  fifty  pesos.  The 
procedure  is  verbal,  but  the  result,  which  is  deliv- 
ered orally  must  be  put  in  writing,  as  a  record.  All 
judgments  must  be  in  writing.  No  criminal  cases 
are  tried  before  these  courts.     There  is  no  appeal  in 

191 


192  PEOGRESSIVE  CHILE 

cases  wliere  the  amount  involved  does  not  exceed 
twenty  pesos.     The  judges  receive  no  salary. 

SECOND. 

Jucces  de  Snbdelogacion  (Substitute  Judges). 
The  procedure  in  tliis  court  is  practically  the  same 
as  in  the  first  mentioned,  except  that  the  amounts 
involved  in  cases  tried  therein,  range  from  fifty  to 
two  hundred  pesos,  and  all  can  be  appealed.  In 
rural  districts,  these  courts  have  jurisdiction  in 
petty  criminal  or  police  cases. 

In  certain  cities,  notably  Valparaiso  and  San- 
tiago, there  are  ''Jueces  de  Apelacion"  (Judges  of 
Courts  of  Appeal),  to  whom  go  appeals  from  the 
first  mentioned  courts.  They  have  jurisdiction  in 
commercial  cases  involving  an  amount  equal  to  two 
hundred  pesos,  and  also  in  cases  relating  to  pawn 
shops,  governing  which  there  is  a  special  law,  allow- 
ing only  a  certain  per  cent,  to  the  holder,  on  articles 
pawned.  If  pawns  are  not  redeemed  within  the 
time  specified,  they  are  sold  at  auction.  With  the 
proceeds  the  pawnholder  is  paid,  and  the  residue,  if 
any,  is  paid  to  the  person  pawning  the  article.  If 
the  money  thus  obtained  is  not  claimed  within  a 
reasonable  time  it  is  turned  into  the  general  gov- 
ernment fund.  Where  there  are  no  Jueces  de 
Apelacion,  their  functions  are  performed  by  Jueces 
de  Letras.     Jueces  de  Apelacion  receive  salary. 

Jueces  de  Letras  (Judges  of  Letters) :  These 
courts  have  jurisdiction  in  i:)robate  cases  where  there 
is  no  litigation;  civil  cases  where  the  amount  in- 
volved exceeds  two  hundred  pesos,  common  mining 
and  fiscal  cases  involving  any  sum,  and  criminal 
cases.    In  the  more  important  cities  and  poi:>ulous 


COURTS  AND  LEGAL  PROCEDURE  193 

districts  there  are  special  Jueces  de  Letras  for 
criminal  cases. 

The  following  named  persons  are  not  subject  to 
jurisdiction  in  courts  i)resided  over  by  Jueces  de 
Letras :  Connnanders  of  Militar^^  and  Naval  Forces ; 
General  Officers,  whether  of  the  Army  or  Navy; 
Inspector  General  of  Militarj^  and  Inspector  General 
of  National  Guard;  Members  of  the  Supreme  Court 
and  Courts  of  Appeal ;  Public  Prosecutor,  Jueces  de 
Letras,  heads  of  church  districts  and  their  secre- 
taries or  vices ;  Consuls  General,  Consuls  and  Vice- 
Consuls  ;  also  municipal  corporations  and  charitable 
institutions. 

These  judges  also  have  jurisdiction  in  cases  ap- 
pealed from  Jueces  de  Subdelegacion,  and  without 
appeal  settle  cases  annulled  in  lower  courts.  ^AHiere 
there  are  no  Jueces  de  Apelacion  they  perfonn  these 
last  named  functions.  Where  there  are  two  or  more 
judges  of  the  same  class  in  one  district,  they  hold 
court  by  weekly  turns,  except  in  Valparaiso,  where 
the  court  of  appeals  sends  each  new  case  to  a  certain 
judge. 

Courts  of  Appeal  are  located  at  Santiago,  Val- 
paraiso, Concepcion,  La  Serena  and  Tacna.  In  San- 
tiago, the  capital,  these  courts  have  twelve  judges, 
and  in  Concepcion  they  have  eight;  the  others  five 
judges  each.  These  courts  have  jurisdiction  as  fol- 
lows: 

FIRST. 

In  the  second  instance  (that  is  to  say  on  appeal), 
of  the  civil  and  criminal  cases  tried  in  the  first  in- 
stance by  Judges  of  Letters  within  their  district. 


194  PKOGRESSIVE  CHILE 


SECOND. 


In  single  instance  (no  appeal  allowed),  of  peti- 
tions for  the  nullifying  of  sentences  rendered  by 
Judges  of  Letters. 

THIRD. 

In  tlie  first  instance,  of  the  civil  and  criminal 
cases,  in  which  may  have  an  interest  or  be  a  direct 
party,  the  President  of  the  Republic,  the  ministers 
of  State,  the  governors  of  the  provinces  and  gov- 
ernors of  departments,  the  Chilean  diplomatic 
agents,  foreign  diplomatic  agents  credited  before 
the  Chilean  government  or  in  transit  through  the 
territory;  the  archbishops,  bishops,  vicars  general; 
and  of  accusations  or  civil  claims  against  Judges  of 
Letters  to  make  effective  the  criminal  and  civil  re- 
sponsibility resulting  from  their  official  acts. 

The  Supreme  Court,  which  is  located  in  Santiago, 
has  jurisdiction  as  follows : 

FIRST. 

In  single  instance  (no  appeal),  of  the  petition  for 
the  nullification  of  judgments  pronounced  by  the 
Courts  of  Appeal. 

SECOND. 

In  the  second  instance,  of  the  cases  corresponding 
in  the  first  instance  to  the  Courts  of  Appeal,  or  to  one 
member  of  the  Supreme  Court.  One  member  of  the 
court,  according  to  the  turn  established  by  the  court 
itself,  judges  in  the  first,  including  accusations  and 
civil  claims  against  one  or  more  members  of  the 
Court  of  Appeals,  to  make  effective  their  criminal  or 


COURTS  AND  LEGAL  PROCEDURE  195 

civil  responsibility,  and  of  the  capture  of  prizes, 
extradition,  and  other  cases  to  be  judged  according 
to  international  law. 

Ministers  of  the  Supreme  Court,  Ministers  of  the 
Courts  of  Appeal  and  Judges  of  Letters  are  ap- 
pointed for  an  indefinite  period,  subject  to  good  be- 
havior. Judges  of  Su])delegations  and  of  Districts 
are  named  for  a  term  of  two  years. 

The  Supreme  Court  is  composed  of  ten  ministers. 
Judges  of  the  Supreme  Court  and  of  the  Courts  of 
Appeal  are  named  by  the  President.  The  high 
court  i^repares  a  list  of  persons  possessing  the  nec- 
essary qualifications,  which  is  presented  to  the  Con- 
sejo  de  Estado  (Council  of  State).  From  this  list 
the  Council  selects  three  names,  which  are  sub- 
mitted to  the  President,  and  from  which  he  may 
choose  whoever  he  pleases.  In  the  appointment  of 
a  Judge  of  Letters,  the  Judges  of  the  Courts  of  Ap- 
peal, in  whose  jurisdiction  the  vacancy  exists,  pre- 
pare a  list  of  fifteen  persons  who  have  the  necessary 
qualifications  and  send  it  to  the  Consejo  de  Estado, 
which  prepares  therefrom  a  list  of  three,  from 
which  the  President  names  the  judge. 

Judges  of  Subdelegatious  and  Districts  are  named 
by  the  governors  of  the  respective  provinces,  from 
lists  of  competent  persons  prepared  by  the  Judges 
of  Letters  within  their  jurisdiction. 

NECESSARY  QU.\UFICATI0NS  FOR  JUDGES  OF  LETTERS. 

Natural  or  acquired  citizenship  in  the  Republic; 
twenty-five  years  of  age;  the  title  of  ''abogado" 
(lawyer) ;  judge  in  a  department  wherein  is  not  the 
capital  of  the  province;  to  have  practiced  law  for 
two  years  in  a  department  in  which  is  located  the 


196  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

provincial  capital;  to  have  practiced  law  six  years, 
or  served  for  two  as  department  judge,  or  judge  of 
a  department  wherein  is  a  Court  of  Appeal ;  to  have 
practiced  law  nine  years,  or  served  as  judge  for  five 
years  in  a  department,  or  for  two  years  in  the  capi- 
tal of  a  province. 

MEMBEKS    OF   COURTS   OF   APPEAL. 

Natural  or  acquired  citizenship;  thirty-two  years 
of  age;  the  title  of  lawyer;  to  have  practiced  law  for 
twelve  years,  or  served  for  six  as  judge  in  a  depart- 
ment, for  four  years  in  the  capital  of  a  province,  or 
for  two  years  in  a  city  wherein  there  is  a  Court  of 
Apx)eal. 

TO  BE  A  MEMBER  OF  THE  SUPREME  COURT. 

Natural  or  acquired  citizenship;  thirty-six  years 
of  age;  the  title  of  lawyer;  to  have  practiced  for 
fifteen  years,  or  served  for  eight  years  as  judge  in 
a  department,  for  six  years  where  there  is  the  capital 
of  a  province,  for  four  years  where  there  is  a  Court 
of  Appeal,  or  for  two  years  as  a  member  of  one  of 
these  courts. 

DISTRICT  JUDGE  OR  JUDGE  OF  SUBDELEGATION. 

Twenty  years  of  age;  reside  within  the  district, 
and  know  how  to  read  and  write,  A  person  who  has 
obtained  a  title  in  one  of  the  liberal  professions  may 
be  District  Judge,  even  if  conditions  one  and  three 
are  lacking. 

Each  member  of  the  Court  of  Appeal  and  of  the 
Supreme  Court  becomes  president  by  turns  for  the 
period  of  one  year. 

Judges  of  the  Supreme  Court  receive  salaries  of 


COURTS  AND  LEGAL  PROCEDURE  197 

15,000  pesos  annually,  with  an  honorarium  of  1,000 
extra  to  the  president  of  the  court.  The  secretary 
gets  7,500  pesos  a  year.  Ministers  of  Courts  of 
Appeal,  9,000  pesos,  with  500  gratuity  to  the  presi- 
dent of  same;  secretary,  3,000,  Judges  of  Letters, 
where  there  is  a  Court  of  Appeal,  7,500.  Judges  of 
Letters  in  the  capital  of  a  province,  6,000.  Judges 
of  other  departments,  4,500. 

QUALIFICATIONS  FOR  LAWYERS. 

The  necessary  qualifications  for  engaging  in  the 
practice  of  law  are :  Twenty  years  of  age ;  the  title 
of  "licentiate"  in  the  faculty  of  laws  and  political 
sciences  in  the  University  of  Chile;  to  have  never 
been  condemned  in  the  courts,  nor  actually  to  have 
a  case  pending  for  a  crime  which  demands  corporal 
punishment.  A  five  years'  course  of  study  in  one  of 
the  Liceos  (colleges)  is  required.  After  an  exam- 
ination in  one  of  the  subjects  included  in  the  course, 
according  to  subject  drawn  by  lottery,  the  student 
receives  the  degree  of  Bachelor  in  the  University. 
After  five  years'  study  in  a  University  as  Bachelor 
of  Laws  and  Political  Science,  another  year's  study 
is  required  before  the  degree  of  lawyer  can  be  ob- 
tained. Only  lawyers  are  permitted  to  plead  in  the 
Supreme  Court  and  Courts  of  Appeal,  unless  the 
principal  himself  wishes  to  plead  his  own  case. 

Unfortunately  there  is  a  class  of  individuals  other 
than  lawyers  who  can  appear  for  defendants  in  all 
the  courts.  They  are  known  as  "tinterillos,"  and 
are  the  plague  of  the  courts  and  a  curse  to  the  coun- 
try. As  a  class  they  are  without  equal  or  compari- 
son in  any  country.  They  are,  as  a  rule,  ignorant 
of    the   law,    unscrupulous    and    dishonest.     Their 


198  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

special  prey  is  the  poorer  classes  who  have  not  the 
means  to  employ  lawyers.  Once  a  victim  in  the 
hands  of  a  tinterillo,  the  unfortunate  individual 
finds  himself  enmeshed  in  a  maze  of  unscrupulous 
proceedings  that  are  neither  regular  nor  legal,  and 
are  calculated  to  draw  him  deeper  into  the  intrica- 
cies of  Chilean  law.  Their  knowledge  of  practice 
is  gained  from  observation,  and  not  from  the  study 
of  law  or  proceedings.  They  usually  get  cases 
mixed  in  an  inextricable  tangle,  lengthen  the  pro- 
ceedings, carrying  them  through  wrongly,  employ 
unlawful  means  in  the  way  of  false  witnesses,  etc. 
They  are  permitted  to  engage  in  their  despicable 
practices  in  the  courts  under  the  democratic  theory 
that  in  a  Republic,  liberty  should  be  denied  to  none, 
though  generally  the  evil  effects  of  such  liberty  are 
painfully  apparent.  Because  of  this  theory  the  evil 
continues,  and  nothing  is  done  to  eliminate  the  ob- 
jectionable practice  from  the  courts. 


PEACTICE. 

In  ordinary  civil  actions  the  complaint  is  made  in 
writing,  with  the  petitions  clearly  specified.  A  de- 
murrer to  the  complaint  niaj^  be  made  by  the  defend- 
ant on  certain  legal  grounds,  but  only  once.  Then 
comes  the  answer  to  the  complaint,  with  possibly  a 
counterclaim.  After  the  answer  comes  the  reply, 
with  answer  to  counterclaim,  if  there  be  any.  Then 
reply  to  the  reply.  Next  comes  the  verification  of 
pleadings.  The  judge  decides  the  points  to  be  pre- 
sented. Within  five  days  the  parties  to  the  suit  pre- 
sent their  list  of  witnesses,  the  judge  orders  thirty 
days  for  them  to  declare  in,  fixing  within  that  time 


COURTS  AND  LEGAL  PROCEDURE  199 

certain  days  wherein  they  are  to  be  examined  and 
cross-examined  through  the  judge. 

When  the  time  expires,  the  plaintiff  is  given  the 
papers  for  ten  days  for  him  to  sum  up  the  case  in 
writing,  and  then  ten  days  are  given  to  the  defend- 
ant for  the  same  purpose.  The  judge  then  makes 
it  known  to  the  parties  that  he  is  going  to  pronounce 
sentence,  which  he  is  supposed  to  do  within  sixty 
days  according  to  law.  This  is  not  always  carried 
out  according  to  the  intent,  however. 

On  appeal,  in  the  upper  court,  the  plaintiff  pre- 
sents a  complaint  and  the  defendant  an  answer,  and 
a  day  is  set  for  the  case  to  be  heard.  Then  the 
lawyers  plead,  after  which  comes  the  final  sentence, 
from  which  there  is  no  appeal,  although  possibly  a 
petition  for  nullification,  to  be  heard  before  the  Su- 
preme Court,  may  be  presented. 

In  criminal  cases  there  comes  first  the  secret  pro- 
ceedings, or  "sumario,"  of  which  the  accused  has 
no  cognizance  till  the  judge  has  exhausted  his  means 
of  investigation.  So  the  evidence  does  not  prove 
the  existence  of  a  crime  and  does  not  tend  to  fix  it 
upon  the  accused.  The  case  is  either  marked  "so- 
bresimiento"  or  else,  when  there  are  not  enough 
proofs  against  the  accused,  he  is  "absuelto  de  la  in- 
stancia"  (absolved  in  this  instance).  Should  there 
be  proofs  against  the  accused,  the  public  prosecu- 
tor accuses  (unless  it  is  a  private  case,  when  of 
course  the  interested  party  does  so).  The  accused 
answers,  and  proofs  are  received  for  a  given  number 
of  days  at  the  judge's  discretion  (not  above  thirty). 
The  hearing  of  the  procedure  is  secret.  Witnesses 
declare  before  the  judge  and  alone,  according  to 
questions  formulated  in  writing  by  the  accused  (if 


200  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

they  are  bis  witnesses).  Proofs  are  likewise  re- 
ceived at  the  same  time  in  regard  to  the  ability  of 
the  witnesses  to  act  as  such.  When  sentence  is  pro- 
nounced, whether  an  appeal  is  made  or  not,  the  case 
goes  to  the  Court  of  Appeals  for  final  decision, — 
final  unless  nullification  of  the  decision  is  asked  for, 
when  it  goes  to  the  Supreme  Court. 


CRIME 

DRINK  is  the  primary  cause  of  much  of  the  crime 
committed  in  Chile.  It  is  in  the  despachos  and 
roadhouses  that  secrets  are  divulged,  confidences 
exchanged  and  robberies  planned.  There  peons  and 
inquilinos  employed  on  farms  and  large  haciendas 
reveal  to  the  thieves,  with  whom  they  are  often  on 
friendly  terms,  the  plans  of  their  master's  proper- 
ties, private  roads,  where  animals  are  pastured, 
means  of  gaining  entrance  into  houses,  when  sales 
of  stock  were  made,  the  amount  of  money  received 
and  where  it  is  kept.  A  robbery  is  proposed  to  the 
intoxicated  servants,  who  readily  acquiesce,  more 
out  of  drunken  gratitude  for  the  liquor  furnished  by 
the  thieves,  than  any  motive  of  crime  or  gain.  They 
are  often  induced  to  act  as  guides  in  directing  the 
bandits  to  the  home  of  their  master.  In  this  man- 
ner the  cunning  thieves  protect  themselves  by  mak- 
ing a  shield  of  the  servants,  claiming  in  the  event 
of  detection  before  an  assault  is  made,  that  they 
were  only  accompanying  their  friends  home.  When 
the  house  is  reached  one  of  the  robbers  goes  to  the 
door  and  raps.  When  the  summons  is  answered  he 
invents  some  plausible  story  of  friendship,  to  induce 
those  within  to  admit  him.  If  refused  he  pleads 
that  it  be  opened  far  enough  to  enable  the  persons 
addressed  to  recognize  him.  If  the  door  is  opened 
the  robbers  rush  in,  usually  firing  several  shots  in 
the  house  to  terrify  the  inmates.     Once  inside  no 

201 


202  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

resistance  is  made  to  their  helping  themselves  and 
pillaging  the  place,  as  the  people  know  too  well  the 
cruel  and  heartless  nature  of  the  roto  bandit.  In 
the  meantime  the  servants  who  piloted  the  maraud- 
ers to  the  house  have  gone  to  their  respective  huts, 
as  nothing  could  induce  them  to  commit  an  assault 
upon  their  master's  house;  neither  do  they  share  in 
the  benefits  of  the  robbery. 

When  satisfied  that  they  have  secured  all  the 
money  in  the  house,  and  helped  themselves  to  such 
food,  drink,  clothing  or  riding  equipment  as  they 
may  find  and  fancy,  the  robbers  leave,  threatening 
to  return  and  murder  the  entire  family,  if  an  at- 
tempt is  made  to  identify  and  punish  them. 

Bandits  have  private  roads,  usually  on  the  higher 
ranges  of  hills,  and  as  far  as  possible  from  the  main 
thoroughfares.  These  bridle  paths  are  much  used 
at  night,  and  if  closed  by  a  fence,  are  at  once  re- 
opened. The  men  who  infest  these  secret  by-ways 
leading  out  from  main  traveled  highways,  and  from 
one  community  to  another,  cannot  be  considered 
brave.  They  usually  depend  upon  superior  num- 
bers, or  the  non-resident  character  of  their  victims, 
aided  by  cunning  and  diplomatic  deceit.  In  self-de- 
fense, to  avoid  arrest  or  to  secure  their  freedom, 
they  will  fight  desperately,  and  without  regard  for 
life. 

Many  well-to-do  people  find  it  convenient  to  recog- 
nize this  lawless  class,  for  the  reason  that  life  and 
property  are  much  more  secure  to  friends  of  the  ban- 
dits than  is  the  case  with  those  who  seek  to  rid  the 
country  of  their  presence. 

Land  Owners  Nos.  2  and  3  are  usually  the  victims 
of   these    robbers.     They   seldom    attack   the   resi- 


CRIME  203 

dences  on  the  large  haciendas,  confining  their  depre- 
dations in  such  places  to  the  stealing  of  animals,  or 
robbing  their  victims  from  big  estates,  on  the  roads. 
Another  reason  is  that  the  houses  on  the  haciendas 
are  more  strongly  built  and  better  arranged  for  re- 
sisting attacks.  Then  there  are  numerous  servants 
about  the  house,  some  of  whom  are  always  on  guard, 
and  savage  dogs  roam  about  the  gardens  and 
grounds  at  night.  The  hacendado  and  his  em- 
ployes are  usually  well  armed  and  know  how  to  use 
their  weapons.  The  windows  of  the  fine  country 
residences  are  protected  with  heavy  iron  bars.  The 
doors  of  these  houses  are  never  opened  after  the 
family  retires  at  night  until  the  following  morning, 
and  the  buildings  are  so  well  constructed  that  it  is 
not  an  easy  matter  to  gain  admittance  by  force. 
Another  reason  why  thieves  seldom  molest  the  ha- 
cendados  in  their  homes  is  the  fact  that  it  would 
take  too  large  a  party  to  surround  the  house  and 
guard  it. 

These  freebooters  are  a  part  of  every  rural  dis- 
trict in  Chile.  They  generally  own  houses  and 
small  tracts  of  land  which  serve  as  a  blind  to  their 
real  occuiDation.  Those  who  do  not  own  property 
are  protected  and  sheltered  by  those  who  do.  As 
cattle  thieves  they  have  no  rivals.  They  will  go  into 
the  "potreros"  of  a  farm  at  night,  drive  the  ani- 
mals into  a  "quebrada"  (wooded  ravine),  where 
they  kill  and  skin  them  and  pack  the  meat  into  sacks 
prepared  for  the  purpose.  With  a  sack  of  meat  be- 
hind each  saddle  and  the  skin  of  an  animal  in  front, 
the  robbers  mount  their  horses  and  ride  away. 
When  day  dawns  they  are  leagues  away  from  the 
scene  of  their  depredations,  and  have  disposed  of 


20i  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

their  spoils  for  cash.  They  then  seek  some  secluded 
spot  where  they  spend  the  day  sleeping,  and  resting 
their  horses.  Tliere  is  no  lack  of  ''fences"  and 
"underground  systems,"  whore  the  bandits  can 
readily  dispose  of  their  plunder.  When  seen  at 
their  humble  homes  these  night  marauders  present 
the  appearance  of  hard  working,  law  abiding  citi- 
zens, and  any  one  of  them  can  promptly  prove  that 
he  has  not  been  absent  from  home  for  many  weeks. 
There  is  no  means  of  procuring  evidence  against 
them,  as  they  can  secure  as  many  witnesses  as  they 
desire  in  their  defense.  And  it  is  impossible  to  get 
any  damaging  information  from  their  families,  even 
from  the  smallest  children.  No  one  can  confess 
them;  they  are  trained  from  infancy  to  observe  dis- 
creet silence  or  give  misleading  information. 
Threats  or  punishment  are  of  no  avail. 

The  boldest,  most  fearless  and  notorious  of  the 
bandits  have  no  fixed  places  of  residence.  Large 
private  and  government  rewards  are  placed  upon 
the  heads  of  some  of  these  desperadoes.  Some  of  the 
more  clever  ones  do  not  participate  personally  in 
the  robberies  and  attendant  crimes,  but  employ 
their  talents  in  planning  and  directing  the  deeds. 
These  clever  managers  often  live  what  appears  to 
be  a  most  respectable  life,  having  no  fear  of  detec- 
tion or  interruption  in  the  management  of  their 
reprehensible  business.  They  are  clever,  cunning, 
subtle,  penetrating,  and  always  cautious.  They 
have  their  trusted  agents,  through  whom  their 
l)lans  are  executed,  and  through  whom  they  receive 
their  profits  in  the  business.  These  men  levy 
tribute  upon  farmers,  merchants  and  professional 
men. 


CRIME  205 

Savage  dogs  are  the  best  protection  to  country 
property.  Hany  bandits  who  have  no  fear  of  armed 
resistance  will  not  venture  into  an  enclosure 
guarded  by  fierce  dogs.  It  is  the  purpose  of  the  rob- 
bers to  always  surprise  their  victims  in  an  assault, 
or  to  gain  admission  to  a  house  by  stealth,  and  the 
barking  of  dogs  frustrates  their  plans. 

A  curious  custom  among  Chilean  bandits,  who 
operate  in  bands,  is  the  taking  with  them  on  their 
thieving  raids  what  is  known  as  a  "loro"  (parrot). 
This  individual  is  usually  selected  for  his  cowardly 
or  cautious  traits,  rather  than  because  of  his 
bravery.  When  a  robbery  is  planned  the  loro  is 
placed  on  guard  to  keep  watch  and  give  the  alarm, 
in  the  event  of  danger  or  discovery.  Fearful  of  be- 
ing caught,  he  is  keenly  alert  and  quick  to  sound  a 
warning  if  anything  suspicious  is  observed. 

Bandits  are  seldom  known  by  their  real  names, 
and  some  of  the  cognomens  applied  to  them  are  as 
characteristic  of  the  individual  as  they  are  curious. 
One  who  is  a  clever  talker  is  called  a  ''Pico  de  Oro" 
(golden  beak) ;  "cojo"  (lame);  "Tenorio"  (ladies' 
man);  ''El  Tuerto"  (squint  eye),  etc. 

As  previously  stated  there  are  few  great  commer- 
cial robberies,  embezzlements  or  forgeries  in  Chile. 
This  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  escape  is  difficult. 
The  Cordilleras  forming  a  natural  barrier  on  one 
side  and  the  ocean  upon  the  other,  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  guard  the  mountain  passes  and  watch  the 
departure  of  ships  to  prevent  persons  from  leaving 
the  country.  Men  connected  with  commercial  in- 
terests, which  give  them  the  opportunity  to  steal  or 
embezzle  large  sums  of  money  are,  as  a  rule,  unfa- 
miliar with  the  mountainous  country  or  the  ways  of 


206  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

bandits,  and  are  therefore  unable  to  escape  by  go- 
ing to  the  interior. 

There  is  another  chiss  of  bandits  or  brigands  who 
are  more  clever,  daring  and  desperate  than  those 
already  described.  They  follow  the  more  well-de- 
fined roads  of  travel,  are  well  dressed,  mounted  on 
good  horses,  intelligent  and  generally  present  a  very 
genteel  appearance.  They  usually  hunt  in  bands, 
covering  a  wide  range  of  territory,  know  all  the 
people  living  within  the  country  covered  by  their 
depredations,  and  are  familiar  with  every  road  and 
by-way.  They  always  have  knowledge  through  their 
accomplices  of  strangers  traveling  through  the 
country,  or  of  servants  sent  upon  important  mis- 
sions. They  roam  about  the  mountainous  regions, 
or  in  close  proximity  to  the  Cordillera  ranges,  where 
escape  is  easy,  in  case  of  pursuit.  Some  of  these 
highwaymen  are  notorious  for  tlie  desperate  deeds 
committed. 

The  common  weapon  of  the  Chilean  bandit,  like 
his  methods,  is  peculiar  to  the  countr5^  During  the 
revolution  in  1891,  nearly  every  Chilono  was  engaged 
in  the  war,  upon  one  side  or  the  otlier.  After  jieace 
was  restored,  the  arms  were  retained  by  the  indi- 
viduals, and  practically  every  man  in  the  country 
possessed  a  rifle.  These  weapons  were  too  large 
and  cumbersome  for  the  bandits,  so  they  cut  off  a 
portion  of  the  barrel,  to  render  them  more  conveni- 
ent, and  so  they  could  be  more  easily  concealed  un- 
der their  ponchos.  These  guns  are  called  '' rifles 
recortado"  (re-cut  rifles). 

The  fact  that  crime  is  common  leads  naturally  to 
the  question  of  law  and  its  enforcement.  Why  are 
there  not  laws  for  the  punishment  of  crime?     There 


CEIME  207 

are.  And  why  are  they  not  enforced?  That  is  an- 
other question,  and  one  involving  various  phases  of 
life  in  the  Republic.  A  large  per  cent,  of  tlie  people 
are  honest,  observing  and  obeying  the  law,  and 
would  be  glad  to  see  it  universally  enforced.  The 
lawless  element  aid  and  protect  each  other,  and  even 
the  more  honest  of  the  poor  people  look  upon  a  no- 
torious criminal  as  a  hero,  rather  than  a  disgraced 
member  of  society,  whose  companionship  is  to  be 
avoided.  These  people  if  called  upon  to  testify  in 
court  against  a  man  whom  they  know  to  be  guilty 
of  numerous  crimes,  will  give  evidence  as  to  his 
good  character.  Another  thing  that  operates  in 
favor  of  the  criminal  is  the  fact  that  the  law  re- 
quires two  disinterested  eye-witnesses  to  establish 
the  guilt  of  any  person  accused  of  crime. 

If  a  person  catches  a  man  in  the  act  of  robbing 
his  house  or  his  property  and  takes  the  thief  into 
custody,  his  evidence  will  not  be  sufficient  to  convict 
the  robber.  He  must  have  two  witnesses  who  saw 
the  thief  in  the  act.  The  evidence  of  members  of 
his  family,  or  of  servants  employed  by  him  will  not 
be  admitted.  The  burden  of  proof  rests  with  the 
prosecutor,  and  not  with  the  accused.  The  slow 
operation  of  the  law  is  also  responsible  for  a  lack 
of  the  enforcement  of  statutory  provisions.  There 
are  so  many  delays  and  difficulties  incident  to  secur- 
ing the  conviction  of  a  criminal,  that  honest  people 
frequently  refuse  to  follow  to  a  conclusion  cases  in 
which  they  are  personally  interested. 

When  convicted  and  sent  to  prison,  the  fact  has 
no  detrimental  effect  upon  the  social  standing  of  the 
convict  in  the  community  in  which  he  lives.  Like 
a  horse  that  has  made  a  record  upon  the  turf,  his 


208  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

performancGs  fnrnisli  a  fruitful  topic  of  conversa- 
tion to  his  friends,  the  details  of  which  are  discussed 
with  animated  interest.  When  released  from 
prison,  and  he  returns  home,  which  is  invariably  the 
case,  the  convict  becomes  the  hero  of  the  community. 
There  is  no  shame  or  disgrace  connected  with  his 
imprisonment.  The  question  of  treatment,  the 
quality  and  quantity  of  beans  served  in  the  prison 
fare,  are  discussed  as  if  they  were  common  phases 
of  everyday  life. 

If  a  thief  is  killed  and  his  friends  and  accom- 
plices secure  possession  of  the  body,  which  they  in- 
variably try  to  do,  the  skin  is  cut  from  the  face  of 
the  corpse,  and  all  clothing  removed  from  the  body. 
These  precautions  are  taken  for  the  purpose  of  pre- 
venting identification. 

It  was  once  a  common  custom,  and  still  prevails 
to  some  extent  in  4^110  rural  provinces,  to  liquidate 
the  crime  of  a  wound  or  even  murder  by  cash  pay- 
ment. It  is  claimed  that  the  law  is  slow  of  execu- 
tion, expensive  and  unsatisfactory,  giving  nothing 
to  the  victim  or  his  family.  If  a  poor  man  is  killed, 
the  assassin  or  his  representatives  will  settle  the  af- 
fair for  a  few  dollars,  sometimes  not  more  than  five 
or  ten  dollars.  If  a  man  of  means  and  social  stand- 
ing in  the  community  meets  a  violent  death,  the 
price  is  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  pesos.  These  liqui- 
dations in  former  times  were  not  private.  Public 
interest  was  often  aroused  and  the  neighbors  en- 
tered into  the  negotiations  to  see  that  a  fair  price 
was  paid.  If  a  person  was  stabbed  a  few  times  it 
was  not  considered  of  sufficient  importance  to  re- 
quire a  money  payment;  a  few  drinks  canceled  the 
account  for  damages. 


CRIME  209 

So  notorious  lias  become  the  commission  of  crime, 
in  recent  years,  that  El  Mercurio,  the  most  widely 
circulated  and  influential  paper  in  the  country  de- 
voted much  space  to  the  subject  a  few  years  ago. 
The  following  is  an  extract  and  translation  from  an 
article  appearing  in  that  journal  in  February,  1903: 

"The  alarm  produced  in  all  classes  of  society  due  to  the 
extraordinary  development  which  is  taking  place  in  the 
criminality  in  Chile,  especially  in  the  capital,  has  induced 
us  to  open  an  investigation  as  to  the  causes  of  such  a 
deplorable  social  condition.  A  study  of  the  causes  which 
have  tended  to  foster  such  a  great  increase  in  the  number 
of  criminal  acts  is  undoubtedly  due  to  the  complete  dis- 
organization of  public  affairs  in  this  country,  and  should 
serve  to  call  seriously  the  attention  of  the  government  to 
the  imperious  necessity  of  attempting  some  course  of  ac- 
tion which  would  tend  to  remedy  in  part,  at  least,  the 
disastrous  condition  of  the  nation  at  large.  The  enormous 
development  of  criminality  in  this  country  is  not  only  the 
manifestation  of  a  very  grave  social  condition,  nor  is  it 
only  the  symptom  of  a  social  dissolution  in  its  worst  form, 
but  it  is  the  visible  cause  of  the  discredit  which  our  coun- 
try is  suffering  among  foreign  nations. 

"The  European  press  avails  itself  of  all  data  relative  to 
the  number  of  terrible  crimes  committed  in  Chile,  and  also 
of  their  sanguinary  and  atrocious  character,  and  denounces 
them  to  their  fellow  citizens  as  proof  of  the  insecurity  of 
life  and  property  in  this  country." 

El  Mercurio,  in  its  endeavor  to  ascertain  the 
reason  for  the  extraordinary  criminal  condition  of 
the  country,  interviewed  Mr.  Luis  Urzua  Gana,  pub- 
lic prosecutor  for  the  department  of  Santiago,  who 
made  the  following  statement: 


210  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

"I  believe  that  the  first  and  foremost  cause  of  the  exist- 
ing criminal  condition  is  due  to  the  fact  that  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  crimes  remain  unpunished.  I  believe  that 
eighty  per  cent,  of  the  offenses  committed  are  not  pun- 
ished, and  that  a  large  proportion  of  them  are  not  even 
denounced.  As  the  greater  tlie  probability  that  a  crime 
will  not  be  punished,  so  law  and  justice  lose  their  deter- 
rent elf  ect. 

"Another  cause  of  criminality  is  the  large  number  of 
vagrant  children,  either  in  complete  idleness  or  in  some 
kind  of  work  which  enables  them  to  gain  in  a  few  hours 
enough  money  for  their  food  and  vices.  Boys  of  twelve 
years  of  age  and  even  under,  exhibit  in  this  country,  the 
same  moral  monstrosities  as  do  men  old  in  sin  and  crime. 
Among  them,  gambling  has  reached  a  surprising  develop- 
ment, and  there  seems  to  be  no  form  of  immorality  which 
has  not  its  adepts  among  them.  And  worse  still  there  are 
people  who  foster  their  vicious  practices  and  make  a  busi- 
ness out  of  their  degradation." 

Soon  after  his  election  in  1901  President  Riesco 
secured  the  passage  of  a  bill  in  the  national  con- 
gress providing  for  the  establishment  and  mainte- 
nance of  a  s])ecially  selected  and  well  equipped  cav- 
alry regiment,  to  be  used  in  suppressing  lawlessness. 
This  troop  is  subject  to  service  in  any  part  of  the 
Republic  wdiere  the  protection  of  life  and  property 
is  required.  The  usefulness  and  effectiveness  of 
this  kind  of  service  is  due  to  the  fact  that  a  better 
class  of  men  is  selected,  than  is  found  in  the  munici- 
pal and  provincial  police.  It  is  too  small  m  num- 
bers, however,  to  properly  guard  and  protect  any 
considerable  iiortion  of  the  mountainous  country 
constituting  fne  territory  of  Chile. 


RAILWAYS 

THE  primordial  need  of  every  country  is  good 
roads  and  ample  transportation  facilities.  This 
is  more  especially  true  of  Chile,  than  of  most  coun- 
tries, because  the  long  strip  of  territory  between  the 
Andean  range  of  mountains  and  the  Pacific  is  char- 
acterized by  narrowness  and  length,  a  configuration 
which  is  peculiarly  lacking  in  continuity  between 
productive  centers.  The  nitrate  fields  and  other  rich 
mineral  producing  sections  of  the  north  are,  by  na- 
ture, completely  isolated  from  the  agricultural  dis- 
tricts of  the  central  valley,  where  the  principal  cities 
and  towns  are  situated,  and  also  from  the  timber 
zone  and  grazing  lands  of  the  far  south. 

During  the  first  half  century  of  the  Republic's  ex- 
istence little  progress  was  made  along  the  line  of 
industrial  development  because  of  a  lack  of  railway 
communication.  The  first  link  in  the  chain  of 
Chile's  present  extensive  railway  systems,  a  line  ex- 
tending from  the  port  of  Caldera  to  Copiapo,  a  dis- 
tance of  fifty  miles,  was  built  in  1851.  Later  other 
roads  were  constructed,  chief  among  which  was  the 
line  extending  from  Valparaiso  to  Santiago,  and 
from  the  capital  south  through  the  central  valley, 
the  great  agricultural  district  of  the  country,  into 
the  coal  producing  and  timber  regions,  connecting 
them  with  the  seaports  and  commercial  centers. 
This  section  of  the  State  railways,  which  for  many 
years  had  its  terminus  at  Concepcion,  was  in  recent 

211 


212  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

years  extended  to  Valdivia,  an  important  industrial 
and  commercial  center,  and  in  1912  was  completed 
as  far  as  Port  Moutt.  Since  the  building  of  the 
first  line,  little  more  than  half  a  century  ago,  the 
railway  system  of  Chile  has  grown  until  it  now  com- 
prises over  four  thousand  miles  of  fairly  well 
equipped  roads,  the  ramifications  of  which  reach 
into  every  part  of  the  country,  with  the  exception 
of  the  territory  constituting  the  southern  limits  of 
the  Republic,  including  Patagonia.  A  little  more 
than  one-half  of  the  railway  mileage  is  government 
ownership,  the  other  portion  being  owned  by  indi- 
viduals and  corporations. 

TRANSANDINE   RAILWAY. 

The  first  step  in  the  progressive  policy  of  railway 
building  in  which  Chile  has  been  engaged  in  recent 
years,  was  the  construction  of  the  Transandine 
Railway  via  Uspillata  Pass.  This  important  line, 
connecting  the  Atlantic  with  the  Pacific,  and  giving 
to  the  Republic  rail  connections  with  countries  to 
the  east  of  the  Andean  range,  brought  the  impor- 
tance of  better  interior  transportation  facilities 
more  closely  to  the  minds  of  the  people,  and  the 
result  has  been  a  period  of  railway  building  sur- 
passing the  expectation  of  the  most  radical  advo- 
cates of  an  aggressive  industrial  policy. 

The  history  of  the  Transandine  Railway  will 
probably  never  be  written,  unless  it  be  given  to  the 
world  by  the  Clark  Brothers,  who  conceived  the 
idea,  and  labored  for  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  cen- 
tury to  enlist  the  assistance  of  the  Chilean  govern- 
ment in  a  plan  to  build  the  road.  Every  succeeding 
administration,    during    the    period   in    which    the 


RAILWAYS  213 

Clarks  were  working  on  the  scheme,  was  apparently 
favorable  to  the  plan.  The  rejection  of  proposals 
and  the  failure  always  to  vote  aid  or  subsidy,  how- 
ever, was  evidence  of  the  fact  that  there  was  al- 
ways secret  opposition. 

During  much  of  the  time  while  the  Transandine 
scheme  was  under  consideration,  a  war  cloud,  aris- 
ing from  a  disputed  boundary  question  between 
Chile  and  the  Argentine,  loomed  large  and  ominous 
over  the  Cordillera,  creating  a  feeling  in  the  minds 
of  the  Chilenos  that  Argentina  was  quite  near 
enough,  without  an  additional  connecting  link  in  the 
way  of  a  railroad  across  the  Andes. 

In  1901  the  Transandine  Railway,  including  the 
portion  already  in  operation,  from  Los  Andes  to 
Salto  del  Soldado,  passed  into  the  hands  of  W.  R. 
Grace  &  Company.  Then  John  Eyre,  manager  for 
Grace  &  Company  in  Chile,  took  up  the  work  of  pro- 
moting the  undertaking.  With  indomitable  courage, 
tireless  energj^  and  full  confidence  in  ultimate  suc- 
cess, he  started  in  to  enlist  government  aid  in  build- 
ing the  road. 

In  February,  1903,  Congress  passed  a  law  author- 
izing the  President  to  advertise  for  a  term  of  one 
year,  from  the  first  of  May,  1903,  for  sealed  propos- 
als for  the  construction  of  the  Transandine  Rail- 
way. The  law  also  provided  for  a  government 
guarantee  of  five  per  cent,  annually  on  a  capital  not 
to  exceed  $7,250,000.  Grace  &  Company  were  the 
only  bidders.  The  proposal  was  for  $6,500,000,  be- 
ing $750,000  below  the  maximum  sum  on  which  the 
government  guaranteed  five  per  cent,  interest.  A 
special  commission  was  appointed  to  examine  the 
proposal,  and  on  June  7,  190-1,  the  tender  was  ac- 


214  PEOGRESSIVE  CHILE 

cepted  by  the  government,  thus  insuring  to  Chile 
railway  communication  with  countries  beyond  the 
mountain  barrier  that  had  so  long  restricted  com- 
merce and  the  develo]unent  of  her  natural  resources. 

On  November  27,  1909,  five  and  a  half  years  after 
the  contract  was  approved  by  the  Chilean  Govern- 
ment, the  last  section  of  rock  in  the  tunnel,  separat- 
ing the  two  gangs  of  workmen  operating  from 
different  sides,  was  removed,  and  a  line  of  communi- 
cation which  had  been  the  dream  of  years  was  estab- 
lished ;  a  line  that  has  had  a  marked  effect,  not  only 
upon  the  two  republics  which  it  directly  connects, 
but  upon  the  world.  On  May  25,  1910,  the  first 
train  was  run  through  the  tunnel  and  an  all-rail 
route  opened  between  Valparaiso  and  Buenos  Aires, 
a  distance  of  888  miles, — the  first  railroad  across 
the  South  American  continent.  Thus  after  thirty- 
seven  years  of  work  and  j)launing,  vicissitudes  and 
discouragements,  the  hopes  of  the  promoters  of  this 
great  enterprise  were  realized  and  the  Transandine 
Railway  an  accomplished  fact.  The  date  will  re- 
main a  memorable  one  in  the  history  of  Chile,  as  it 
occurred  in  the  year  of  the  one  hundredth  anniver- 
sary of  the  Independence  of  the  Republic. 

The  (Jhilean  terminus  of  the  tunnel,  which  is 
10,385  feet  long,  is  at  El  Portillo,  at  an  altitude  of 
10,450  feet  above  sea  level,  and  on  the  Argentine 
side  at  Las  Cuevas.  On  the  Chilean  side  the  road 
ascends  the  mountains  7,615  feet  within  a  distance 
of  46  miles,  between  Los  Andes  and  the  summit,  an 
average  of  166  feet  to  the  mile.  Directly  over  the 
tunnel,  on  the  Uspillata  pass,  at  an  altitude  of 
13,000  feet  stands  the  "Christ  of  the  Andes,"  a 
statue  erected  in  1904,  as  a   symbol   of  perpetual 


RAILWAYS  215 

peace  between  the  two  ropnblics.  It  was  cast  in 
bronze  from  cannons  contril)uted  by  both  nations. 
It  stands  upon  the  international  boundary  line 
established  by  a  commission  appointed  by  King  Ed- 
ward, after  war  between  Chile  and  the  Argentine 
had  been  imminent  for  years.  The  figure  repre- 
senting Christ  is  twenty-six  feet  high,  and  placed 
upon  a  colossal  column  it  makes  an  imposing  and 
impressive  monument.  In  one  hand  is  held  a  cross, 
while  the  other  is  extended  in  a  blessing  of  peace. 
The  inscription  on  one  of  the  tablets  is:  "Sooner 
shall  these  mountains  crumble  into  dust  than  the 
people  of  Argentina  and  Chile  break  the  peace  to 
which  they  have  pledged  themselves  at  the  feet  of 
Christ  the  Redeemer." 

The  Transandine  line  in  Chile  is  made  up  of  two 
systems  with  different  gauges  of  track.  From  Val- 
paraiso to  Los  Andes  the  route  is  over  the  State 
railways,  which  is  of  standard  gauge;  from  Los 
Andes  to  the  Argentine  frontier,  including  the  tun- 
nel, a  distance  of  50  miles,  the  road  is  narrow  gauge, 
39  inches,  a  portion  of  it  rack  and  pinion  system. 

This  route  shortens  the  distance  to  Buenos  Aires, 
and  consequently  between  Europe  and  Chile,  by 
about  twelve  days,  as  formerly,  during  a  consid- 
erable portion  of  the  year  traffic  from  the  Atlantic 
and  the  east  coast  was  by  way  of  the  Straits  of 
Magellan. 

ARICA,    LA    PAZ    RAILWAY. 

Another  important  division  of  the  State  railways 
is  the  line  extending  from  Arica  to  La  Paz.  This 
road,  constructed  in  accordance  with  stipulations 
in  the  treaty  celebrated  between  Chile  and  Bolivia, 


21G  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

October  1904,  was  built  at  the  expense  of  the  Chilean 
government  at  a  cost  of  $11,900,000  U.  S.  currency. 
The  treaty  agreement  providing  for  this  road  caused 
a  vigorous  protest  from  the  Peruvian  government, 
as  the  route  lies  through  the  province  of  Arica 
which,  previous  to  the  war  of  1879,  was  Peruvian 
territory,  and  which  is  still  involved  in  the  Tacna 
and  Arica  question.  The  contract  for  the  construc- 
tion was  awarded  on  March  4,  1900,  and  the  road 
was  completed  in  1912. 

The  engineering  difficulties  encountered  were  nu- 
merous and  complicated,  the  gradient  in  some  i)laces 
being  exceedingly  steep.  At  one  point  the  line  rises 
3,610  feet,  within  a  distance  of  25  miles.  The  total 
length  of  the  line  is  267  miles  of  which  28  miles  is 
of  the  Abt  rack  system  on  a  six  per  cent,  maximum 
grade,  which  constitutes  the  longest  continuous 
stretch  of  rack  system  railway  in  the  world.  The 
liighest  altitude  reached  is  13,986  feet,  at  a  distance 
of  112  miles  from  Arica  and  155  from  La  Paz. 

The  road  passes  through  an  undeveloped  country 
that  is  rich  in  mineral  resources,  and  furnishes  di- 
rect communication  between  Chilean  ports  on  the 
Pacific  and  the  capital  of  Bolivia.  This  line,  con- 
necting the  two  republics,  and  supplemented  as  it 
is  with  numerous  branch  roads  leading  into  the 
various  mining  districts,  forms  a  railway  system 
that  has  contributed  materially  to  the  development 
of  the  territory  through  which  it  passes. 

Under  treaty  agreement  it  is  to  be  operated  by 
Chile  for  a  period  of  fifteen  years,  after  which  time 
the  section  in  Bolivia  becomes  the  property  of  the 
Bolivian  government. 


EAILWAYS  217 


LONGITUDINAL.   RAILWAY. 


The  most  important  division  of  the  government 
railway  system  in  C'liile,  however,  because  of  its  re- 
lation to  the  industrial  and  commercial  interests  of 
the  country,  is  the  longitudinal  line  extending  from 
Tacna  to  Port  Montt,  a  distance  of  over  two  thou- 
sand miles,  and  constituting  the  great  central  artery 
of  communication,  uniting  the  mineral  zones  of  the 
north  with  the  agricultural  regions  of  the  central 
valley  and  the  timber  sections  of  the  south.  This 
road  has  as  feeders  over  thirty  transverse  lines  of 
varying  length  connecting  the  productive  centers  of 
the  Republic  with  all  the  principal  seaports  of  the 
coast.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  transport  is 
maintained  by  sea  along  the  entire  length  of  the  ter- 
ritory constituting  the  Republic,  a  north  and  south 
railway  was  felt  to  be  a  necessity.  In  addition  to 
commercial  needs  there  are  strategic  reasons  for  a 
longitudinal  line:  to  facilitate  the  transportation  of 
troops  and  armament  from  one  end  of  the  Republic 
to  the  other  in  case  of  war. 

As  far  back  as  Balmaceda's  time  the  building  of 
this  road  figured  among  the  government's  projects, 
and  in  succeeding  administrations  plans  were  made 
for  the  execution  of  the  work.  It  was  President  Don 
Pedro  Montt,  however,  who  took  up  the  task  of 
carr^ang  out  the  idea  and,  with  characteristic  per- 
severance, succeeded  in  getting  the  National  Con- 
gress to  pass  a  law  in  1908,  authorizing  him  to  call 
for  public  tenders  for  contracts  for  the  construction 
of  the  Longitudinal  Railway.  In  1909  contracts  were 
let  for  the  building  of  over  eight  hundred  miles  of 
the  road  at  a  total  cost  of  $35,000,000. 


218  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

The  completion  of  this  lonc^itudinal  line  leaves  only 
the  territory  lying  south  of  latitude  4:2  degrees,  and 
forming  the  greater  part  of  what  is  known  as 
Chilean  Patagonia  without  a  railway. 

The  service  on  tlie  railways  in  Chile  is,  as  a  rule, 
unsatisfactory,  and  on  some  of  the  lines  it  may  be 
designated  as  bad.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
management  of  the  government  roads  is  influenced 
by  politics.  The  compensation  of  government  rail- 
way employes  is  very  low,  and  payment  of  salaries 
not  infrequently  long  delayed  and  somewhat  uncer- 
tain. The  tenure  of  service  depends  upon  political 
influence,  and  there  is  little  in  the  system  to  encour- 
age honest  industry.  Employes  feel  no  personal  re- 
sponsibility and  to  cheat  the  government,  particu- 
larly in  the  failure  to  render  good  service,  is  a  com- 
mon practice  that  is  not  considered  a  crime. 

First  class  fares  correspond  to  those  prevailing  in 
the  United  States,  but  second  and  third-class  fares 
and  freight  rates  are  very  low.  The  express  trains 
from  Valparaiso  to  Santiago,  and  from  the  capital 
south  to  Concepcion  carry  American  chair  cars  in 
the  day,  and  on  the  southern  section,  Pullman  cars 
on  the  night  trains. 

The  lack  of  facilities  for  carrying  freight,  the  un- 
satisfactory service  in  cargo  trains,  and  the  slow 
method  of  unloading  and  loading  cars,  is  a  serious 
handicap  to  business  depending  upon  the  prompt  de- 
livery of  merchandise  and  material.  The  freight 
service  on  the  government  roads  is  generally  bad. 
The  yard  and  track  facilities  in  all  the  important 
commercial  centers  are  wholly  inadequate  to  the  re- 
quirements. It  is  fre(]uently  impossible  to  secure 
cars,  and  when  once  the  freight  is  loaded  and  ac- 


EAILWAYS  219 

cepted  by  the  railway,  there  is  much  uncertainty  as 
to  when  it  will  be  forwarded  to  its  destination.  If 
the  freight  consists  of  perishable  goods  the  chances 
are  that  it  will  be  seriously  damaged  or  entirely  de- 
stroyed before  delivery.  In  either  event  there  is  no 
recourse  in  law  for  damages. 

In  1904  there  was  a  great  shortage  of  freight  cars 
in  Valparaiso.  Merchants  and  manufacturers  were 
demanding  cars  in  which  to  ship  cargo  long  over- 
due in  delivery.  When  the  manager  of  the  State 
railways  was  appealed  to  for  relief,  he  stated  that 
all  freight  cars  on  that  section  of  the  road  had  been 
ordered  to  Santiago  where  a  census  of  the  rolling 
stock  was  being  taken.  Complaint  against  abuses 
in  the  service  is  useless. 

One  redeeming  feature  of  the  railway  service  in 
Chile,  is  the  cheap  passenger  fares  for  the  poor 
people,  who  are  ill  able  to  pay  high  rates,  and  who 
do  not  expect  much  in  return  for  their  money.  Time 
is  no  object  to  them,  and  if  trains  run  slowly  and  not 
up  to  schedule,  there  is  no  complaint. 

ELECTRIC    ROADS. 

The  use  of  electricity  as  a  motive  power  in  Chile, 
is  in  its  incipiency.  Electric  car  systems  now  in 
operation  are,  the  street  railways  in  Santiago,  Val- 
paraiso, Concepcion  and  Talca,  and  their  respective 
suburbs,  a  few  lines  in  mountainous  districts,  used 
for  carrying  ores  from  the  mines  to  the  reducing  sta- 
tions, an  interurban  line  connecting  Concepcion  with 
the  ports  of  Talcahuano  and  Coronel,  and  one  ex- 
tending from  Valparaiso  to  Vina  del  Mar.  A  gov- 
ernment concession  has  been  granted  for  the  building 
of  an  electric  railway  from  Santiago  to  Valparaiso, 


220  PEOGRESSIVE  CHILE 

and  plans  are  being  made  for  the  electrification  of 
some  of  the  government  roads. 

Connecting  with  the  railways  of  the  country  are 
cart  roads,  the  best  of  which  may  be  classed  as  bad, 
and  the  branches  connecting  with  the  principal  high- 
ways are  nothing  more  than  trails  over  a  rough 
mountainous  country.  Few  new  roads  are  being 
built,  and  little  attention  is  given  to  the  improvement 
or  maintenance  of  those  already  constructed. 

TRAVEL.. 

The  only  means  of  travel  in  many  localities  is  on 
horseback.  Long  or  short  distance,  singly  or  in 
numbers,  the  country  people  traveling  on  horse- 
back, will  often  follow  poorly  defined  trails  over  the 
mountains  for  great  distances,  seldom  losing  their 
way  or  deviating  from  the  shortest  route.  They 
seldom  carry  any  baggage,  except  such  articles  of 
clothing  as  they  require  for  the  trip,  which  is  trans- 
ported in  bags  or  baskets. 

The  country  people  are  generally  hospitable,  usu- 
ally offering  to  passing  strangers  such  food  and  ac- 
commodations as  they  may  have,  and  without  expec- 
tation of  remuneration. 


INDUSTRIAL  INTERESTS 

FROM  the  earliest  history  of  the  Republic,  the  en- 
ergies of  the  Chilenos  have  been  devoted  largely 
to  agricultural  and  horticultural  pursuits,  stock  rais- 
ing and  mining.  The  conditions  of  soil  and  climate, 
and  the  natural  resources  of  the  country  have  en- 
couraged the  people  to  interest  themselves  in  those 
lines  rather  than  in  industrial  occupations.  The  re- 
sult is  that  there  are  few  large  manufacturing- 
interests  in  the  country.  The  majority  of  the  more 
important  manufactured  articles  are  imported. 
There  are,  however,  various  small  industrial  insti- 
tutions, most  of  which  are  closely  related  to  the 
agricultural  and  mining  interests.  The  methods 
employed  are  more  or  less  primitive,  as  is  fre- 
quently the  case  where  a  low  value  is  placed  upon 
labor. 

Practically  all  of  the  manufacturing  interests  in 
Chile  are  operated  by  foreigners  and  controlled  by 
foreign  capital.  This  may  be  attributed  to  the  fact 
that  the  Chilenos  do  not  possess  the  taste  for  in- 
dustrial pursuits.  Another  cause  is  the  irresponsi- 
bility of  laborers  and  mechanics.  The  average 
Chilean  workman  has  no  sense  of  responsibility. 
If  given  a  task  to  perform,  he  cannot  be  made  to 
understand  that  any  importance  attaches  to  the 
time  when  it  is  to  be  completed.  Individually  and 
collectively,  the  workmen  are  afflicted  with  the 
"maiiana"    disease.     This    condition    has    existed 

221 


222  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

from  the  time  of  the  earliest  history  of  the  country 
and  continues  to  be  one  of  the  serious  drags  upon 
industrial  and  commercial  progress.  If  remon- 
strated with  for  indiiference  to  his  employer's  in- 
terests or  his  procrastination  of  time,  the  workman 
will  declare  his  willingTiess  to  leave  his  position. 
To  discharge  him  does  not  improve  the  situation,  as 
the  man  employed  in  his  stead  will  entertain  similar 
ideas  as  to  his  rights  and  duties.  He  cannot  be  en- 
couraged by  kindness,  or  even  an  increase  of  wages 
to  change  his  habits.  He  is  without  ambition,  and 
does  not  expect  to  improve  his  condition.  It  is  use- 
less to  manifest  any  sympathy  for  him,  he  does  not 
want  it.  He  is  satisfied,  and  will  not  accept  inno- 
vations. That  which  Avas  good  enough  for  his 
father  and  grandfather,  is  satisfactory  to  him.  He 
believes  that  he  was  born  to  his  station  in  life,  and 
he  sticks  to  it  stupidly  and  stolidly.  Another  draw- 
back to  the  manufacturing  business  is  the  fact  that 
the  Chilean  workman  or  mechanic  seldom  learns  his 
trade  properly,  and  takes  no  pains  to  improve  him- 
self or  his  condition. 

In  Chile  a  lad  is  put  to  work  in  a  shop,  and  in  a 
few  weeks  or  months  he  tires  of  the  job,  and  tries 
something  else.  After  a  time  he  tires  again  and 
tries  another  trade.  And  so  he  goes  on  changing 
until  the  lime  arrives  when  he  should  be  a  compe- 
tent journeyman  tradesman,  and  he  goes  forth  a 
jack  of  all  trades  and  master  of  none.  The  Chilean 
workman  has  his  good  qualities,  however,  as  well  as 
his  faults.  If  properly  encouraged  he  will  render 
excellent  service  as  a  laborer.  He  does  not  work 
intelligently,  and  where  skill  is  required  he  is  un- 
satisfactory.    Inured  to  a  life  of  toil,  hardship  and 


INDUSTRIAL  INTERESTS  223 

deprivation,  lie  does  not  hesitate  to  engage  in  any- 
kind  of  labor,  no  matter  how  menial  or  trying.  He 
has  wonderful  endurance,  and  can  subsist  upon  the 
plainest  food,  in  limited  quantities,  while  perform- 
ing tasks  requiring  the  greatest  exertion.  In 
handling  heavy  freight  or  cargo  he  has  few  equals. 
He  has  great  strength  in  his  arms,  back  and  legs, 
and  the  enormous  weights  he  can  carry  is  cause  for 
comment  among  tliose  who  witness  his  feats  of 
strength.  A  roto  will  trot  along  the  street  carry- 
ing a  box  or  bale  of  merchandise  upon  his  back  that 
weighs  three  or  four  hundred  pounds,  and  is  appar- 
ently not  distressed  with  the  burden.  It  is  at  labor 
where  strength  and  endurance  count  that  he  is  val- 
uable as  a  workman. 

Organization  among  the  working  classes  in  Chile 
is  in  the  formative  stage ;  yet  even  in  its  incipiency, 
unionism  has  proved  itself  to  be  a  dangerous  po- 
litical element  and  a  serious  menace  to  society.  The 
working  classes  are  not  sufficiently  educated  to  ap- 
preciate the  responsibilities,  or  to  enable  them  to 
direct  with  intelligence  and  judgment,  an  organized 
force.  The  roto  has  little  idea,  and  no  apprecia- 
tion of  obligation  to  his  employer,  to  society,  or  to 
the  State;  no  regard  for  his  word  and  little  for  the 
law.  He  is  illiterate,  intemperate  and  supersti- 
tious. He  is  not  lazy,  but  improvident,  and  works 
because  necessity  prompts  it,  rather  than  for  the 
purpose  of  bettering  his  condition.  He  can  neither 
be  persuaded  nor  forced  to  understand  the  impor- 
tance of  reporting  for  duty  at  a  fixed  hour  for  a 
given  number  of  days  in  the  week.  He  is  inde- 
pendent and  clannish,  and  has  an  exaggerated  idea 
of  his  republican  citizenship.     His  hatred  of  for- 


224  PROGRESSWE  CHILE 

eign  workmen  is  intense,  and  he  will  not  stop  short 
of  murder,  if  that  be  necessary,  to  prevent  the 
** gringo"  from  coming  into  competition  with  him. 
He  is  an  apt  pupil  in  the  ethics  of  trades  unions,  in 
so  far  as  it  applies  to  his  side  of  the  question.  He 
believes  that  the  province  of  the  union  is  to  force 
shorter  hours  and  more  pay,  without  giving  in  turn 
good  and  steady  service.  He  has  yet  to  learn  the 
commercial  value  of  truth;  the  beneficial  elTects  to 
himself  of  personal  industry,  of  rendering  an  hon- 
est day's  labor  for  his  wage.  He  must  learn  the 
good  result  of  applying  new  methods  to  his  work, 
and  also  lessons  of  economy  and  providence.  In 
short,  he  must  join  the  onmarching  procession  of 
industrial  and  commercial  development  before  he  is 
qualified  and  competent  to  assert  his  authority  and 
make  demands  as  an  organized  force.  A  danger- 
ous phase  of  the  labor  union  problem  is  the  fact 
that  when  encouraged  b}^  clever  leaders  and  en- 
forced by  numbers,  the  Roto  Chileno  is  not  slow  to 
resort  to  violence. 

The  most  serious  charge  made  against  labor  or- 
ganizations in  Chile,  and  one  that  is  well  founded 
is,  that  they  do  not  seek  to  elevate  the  standard  of 
excellence  among  their  members,  or  to  better  their 
individual  condition.  Neither  do  they  encourage 
temperance,  and  obedience  to  law,  or  protection  to 
society. 

VINEYARDS. 

Grape  culture  and  the  manufacture  of  its  prod- 
ucts constitutes  one  of  the  principal  industrial  in- 
terests of  Chile.  In  this,  as  in  other  industries, 
there  are  no  statistics  available  on  which  to  base 


INDUSTRIAL  INTERESTS  225 

satisfactory  calculations  concerning  the  acreage, 
production  of  wine,  "agTiarcliente"  and  ''chiclia," 
manufactured  annually.  It  is  estimated  that  there 
are  now  about  20,000  acres  of  producing  vineyards, 
and  the  acreage  is  being  annually  augmented.  The 
soil  is  especially  adapted  to  grape  culture.  Vines 
thrive  and  produce  well  both  on  the  dry  hill  lands 
and  in  the  irrigated  sections.  The  grape  vine  was 
introduced  in  Chile  by  the  Spaniards  during  colonial 
times,  but  the  cultivation  of  it  has  become  a  na- 
tional and  profitable  industry  only  in  recent  years. 
There  is  already  a  large  export  trade  in  wine,  which 
is  annually  increasing.  On  the  large  estates  the 
French  method  is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
wine,  and  most  of  the  distilleries  are  in  charge  of 
expert  wine-men  from  France. 

There  are  few  more  interesting  sights  than  that 
of  a  large  estate  devoted  to  vineyards.  The  vines, 
planted  in  even  rows,  are  carefully  wired  and 
trimmed  and  gracefully  festooned.  On  the  terraces 
of  the  hill  farms  the  vari-tinted  foliage  presents  an 
artistic  appearance,  particularly  so  when  from  the 
vines  are  suspended  millions  of  amber  and  purple 
clusters  ready  for  the  vintage. 

The  grapes  are  picked  from  the  vines  by  women 
and  children,  and  placed  in  baskets.  Two-wheeled 
ox  carts,  equipped  with  large  tanks  made  of  animal 
skins,  are  used  for  conveying  the  grapes  to  the 
winery.  The  first  process  consists  of  passing  the 
fruit  through  a  machine  that  mangles  the  grapes  but 
does  not  crush  the  seeds.  From  these  machines  the 
pulp  and  juice  fall  into  fermenting  vats.  If  red 
wine  is  to  be  made  the  liquid  and  stems  are  left  to 
ferment  together ;  if  white  wine  or  chicha,  the  liquid 


226  PEOGRESSIVE  CHILE 

is  drawn  off  throiigh  a  strainer.  The  method  of 
fermenting,  bottling,  seasoning,  etc.,  is  the  same  as 
that  employed  in  large  wineries  in  other  countries. 
In  the  smaller  vineyards,  different  methods  are 
nsed;  there,  the  primitive  process  of  making  wine 
by  hand  is  still  employed.  The  vats  for  holding 
the  wine,  instead  of  being  made  of  cement  or  wood, 
are  the  skins  of  bullocks,  removed  from  the  animals 
with  as  little  opening  as  possible.  "While  green 
these  hides  are  placed  upon  poles,  hammock  fashion, 
and  filled  with  stones,  which  stretch  them  into  the 
desired  form,  and  in  which  position  they  are  left  to 
dry.  When  seasoned  these  skins  form  natural  tubs 
or  vats,  to  which  the  portion  originally  covering  the 
tail  forms  a  faucet,  or  outlet.  In  some  instances 
these  primitive  wine  producers  employ  the  original 
method  of  crusliing  the  grapes,  by  throwing  them 
into  vats,  where  naked  men  trample  them,  often 
walking  neck  deep  in  the  pulpous  mass.  The  wine 
is  fermented  in  casks,  and  when  ready  for  use  is 
stored  in  large  earthen  jars,  made  by  hand  and 
baked  in  crude  kilns. 

VEHICLES. 

There  are  no  large  manufactories  for  the  produc- 
tion of  vehicles.  Most  of  the  vehicles  used  in  Chile 
are  primitive  in  design,  crude  in  construction  and 
finish.  Two-wheeled  carts,  which  are  almost  uni- 
versally used  as  transports  for  freight,  are  manu- 
factured in  all  the  towns  and  villages.  Most  of 
them  are  clumsy,  with  high  wheels,  heavy,  rough 
spokes,  broad,  thick  fellies,  and  wide  tires.  The 
box  or  frame  is  fastened  to  the  axle,  without  springs 
or  other  means  of  relieving  the  jolting  sensation 


INDUSTRIAL  INTERESTS  227 

produced  by  the  wheels  passing  over  the  rough 
country  roads  or  uneven  streets. 

In  the  country,  oxen  are  used  almost  exclusively 
for  drawing  carts.  The  pole  of  the  cart  is  a  piece 
of  timber  fastened  firmly  in  the  center  of  the  axle, 
and  extending  forward  a  sufficient  distance  for  the 
animals  to  be  harnessed  to  the  vehicle.  The  yoke 
by  which  the  oxen  are  attached,  instead  of  resting 
upon  the  neck  of  the  beast,  as  is  common  in  most 
countries,  is  placed  upon  the  head  just  back  of  the 
horns,  and  fastened  with  strips  of  rawhide  passed 
around  the  horns  and  over  the  forehead.  This 
method  of  harnessing  gives  to  the  animal  no  free- 
dom of  action  of  the  head.  The  frame  of  the  cart 
being  firmly  fastened  to  the  tongue,  all  the  jarring 
sensation  produced  by  the  motion  of  the  vehicle 
comes  upon  the  head,  causing  great  torture. 

Vehicles  used  for  transporting  goods  in  the 
cities  and  towns  are  the  same  as  those  employed  for 
similar  purposes  in  the  country,  except  that  they  are 
not  so  heavy.  They  are  provided  with  shafts  and 
are  drawn  by  horses.  One  horse  works  between 
the  shafts,  and  another  is  attached  by  a  single  trace, 
upon  the  left,  or  near  side.  A  saddle  constitutes  a 
part  of  the  harness  of  the  animal  on  the  left,  on 
which  the  driver  is  mounted. 

One  of  the  common  methods  of  transporting  cargo 
in  the  towns  and  cities,  is  upon  the  backs  of  horses. 
Groceries,  meat,  milk,  in  fact  all  classes  of  freight 
from  barrels  of  oil  and  cement  to  huge  timbers  and 
piles  of  lumber,  are  carried  upon  horses.  In  the 
country,  mules  are  employed  for  the  same  purpose, 
as  they  are  more  sure  footed  upon  the  hills,  and  will 
carry  heavy  loads  for  greater  distances. 


228  PKOGRESSIVE  CHILE 


COAL.. 

Oiitcroppings  of  coal  were  discovered  in  Talca- 
huano,  Coronel  and  Lota,  all  of  which  are  situated 
upon  the  Gulf  of  Arauco,  Province  of  Concepcion, 
department  of  Lautaro,  as  nearly  as  1840.  The  first 
attempt  to  work  the  mines  was  made  by  Don  An- 
tonio Memparte,  in  the  vicinity  of  Lota,  in  1850. 
Two  years  later  the  property  passed  into  the  pos- 
session of  Don  Matais  Cousino,  who  finally  suc- 
ceeded in  establishing  the  reputation  of  the  Lota 
coal  for  smelting,  steam  and  domestic  pur|30ses. 
Later  other  mines  were  opened,  and  the  district 
known  as  the  Lota  and  Coronel  country  now  pro- 
duces coal  in  large  quantities,  supplying  nearly  all 
the  steamships  passing  that  way,  as  well  as  the  gov- 
ernment and  corporation  railways  of  the  country. 
The  development  of  the  coal  industry  at  Lota  en- 
couraged the  establishment  of  various  manufac- 
turing industries  in  that  locality.  Among  the  more 
important  industrial  concerns  are  brick  and  pottery 
works,  which  were  established  in  1855,  and  a  large 
copper  smelting  plant  that  has  been  in  operation 
since  1860.  Later  a  glass  factory,  the  only  works 
of  the  kind  in  Chile,  was  added  to  the  industries  of 
the  place.  These  concerns  are  all  operated  by  the 
Lota  Company  in  connection  with  the  coal  mines. 

The  first  practical  teachers  and  pioneer  miners  at 
Lota  were  Scotchmen,  very  few  of  whom  now  sur- 
vive. They  were  about  thirty  in  number.  Their 
original  destination  was  the  island  of  Vancouver, 
but  owing  to  some  difficulties  that  occurred  on  the 
voyage,  the  ship  on  which  they  were  traveling  put 
into    Valparaiso,   where    they    remained   for    some 


INDUSTRIAL  INTERESTS  229 

time,  and  from  where  they  were  later  engaged  for 
the  mines  at  Lota.  There  they  founded  what  is 
still  designated  the  British  colony.  It  is  now,  how- 
ever, British  in  name  only,  there  being  but  few  of 
the  original  colonists  or  their  families  left.  The 
remaining  few  abandoned  their  national  customs 
and  language  for  the  customs  of  the  country  in 
which  they  lived.  To  such  an  extent  have  they 
adapted  themselves  to  local  conditions  and  influ- 
ences that  very  few  of  the  residents  at  Lota  bearing 
English  names  can  speak  the  English  language. 

The  coal  from  the  Lota  district  is  of  a  low  grade, 
producing  an  unusual  amount  of  cinders  and  refuse. 
The  Arauco  Company  which  operates  mines  in  the 
same  district,  and  which  has  a  railroad  running 
from  Coronel  to  Colico,  a  distance  of  some  twenty 
miles,  is  also  producing  coal  in  large  quantities. 

MINING   AND   MANUFACTURING. 

Owing  to  the  extensive  working  of  the  great 
nitrate  of  soda  deposits,  mining  takes  first  place 
among  Chilean  industries.  Although  producing 
nearly  a  million  tons  annually,  coal  mining  has  not 
developed  sufficiently  to  supply  the  needs  of  the 
country,  the  importations  amounting  to  about  one 
and  a  half  million  tons  a  year.  Copper  is  the  most 
important  of  the  metals  mined,  although  gold  and 
silver  are  mined  in  considerable  quantities. 

In  recent  years  more  attention  has  been  paid  to 
manufacturing.  In  1909  there  were  5,000  manu- 
facturing establishments,  large  and  small,  with  a 
capital  of  $45,000,000,  and  an  aggregate  output  val- 
ued at  $64,000,000.  There  are  960  establishments  in 
the  shoe  and  leather  industry,  870  in  food  supplies, 


230  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

670  in  metal  industries,  555  in  the  manufacture  of 
garments,  440  wood  working  industries,  210  in 
I)aper  and  printing  and  200  in  the  manufacture  of 
alcoholic  beverages. 

The  value  of  imports  into  Chile  in  1909  was  ap- 
proximately $95,000,000  and  the  export  values 
for  the  same  year  $110,000,000.  Of  the  total  im- 
ports Great  Britain  supplied  32  per  cent.,  Ger- 
many 22  per  cent.,  and  the  United  States  10  per 
cent.  Of  the  total  exports,  amounting  to  $110,000,- 
000,  Great  Britain  purchased  45  per  cent.,  Germany 
24  per  cent.,  and  the  United  States  20  per  cent.  Eu- 
rope and  the  United  States  bought  over  90  per  cent, 
of  the  exports,  and  furnished  80  per  cent,  of  the 
imports. 

Nitrate  of  soda  constitutes  about  75  per  cent,  of 
the  total  exports  from  Chile,  and  copper,  5  per  cent. 
The  four  articles  of  import  showing  the  largest 
values  are,  steel  and  manufactures  of,  coal,  cotton 
goods  and  industrial  machinery.  Eighty-five  per 
cent,  of  the  imports  consist  of  manufactured  arti- 
cles. 


POPULATION  AND  COLONIZATION 

PEDRO  VALDIVIA,  in  a  letter  to  Carlos  V.  of 
Spain,  dated  at  La  Sarena,  September  5,  1545, 
described  the  beautiful  climate  of  Chile  as  one 
where  man  could  work  under  the  summer  sun  with- 
out inconvenience,  and  expressed  the  belief  that 
there  could  be  developed  and  maintained  a  strong, 
virile,  superior  race  of  people  that  would  be  an 
honor  to,  and  the  pride  of  the  mother  country.  He 
also  expressed  the  belief  that  in  the  conquest  of 
Cliile  he  would  secure  territory  where  he  and  his 
companions  might  leave  a  lineage  that  would  honor 
their  memories. 

In  some  respects  this  seems  to  have  been  a  pro- 
phetic view  of  the  situation.  The  mixing  of  the 
blood  of  those  bold,  intelligent,  but  cruel  and  un- 
scrupulous "conquistadores,"  with  the  strong,  cour- 
ageous qualities  of  the  Araucanian  Indians,  has  left 
in  Chile  a  distinct  type,  a  characteristic  race  of  peo- 
ple. They  possess  the  romantic  tendencies  and 
diplomatic  qualities  of  the  Spaniards,  combined 
with  the  independent  natures  of  the  Araucanians. 

They  are  a  hospitable  people,  but  are  clannish, 
and  have  a  strong  prejudice  against  all  foreigners. 
This  prejudice,  apparently  inherent,  and  deep 
rooted  in  the  minds  of  the  people,  while  it  has  con- 
tributed materially  to  the  maintenance  of  racial 
characteristics,  has  also  discouraged  and  restricted 
immigration.    As  a  result  of  this  antagonistic  feel- 

231 


232  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

ing  against  foreigners  coming  to  the  country,  the 
increase  in  popuhition  has  been  small,  and  the  prog- 
ress of  commercial  and  industrial  development  cor- 
respondingly slow. 

At  the  time  of  the  Spanish  invasion,  in  the  six- 
teentli  century,  the  Indian  population  was  estimated 
at  1,000,000.  The  aggregate  number  of  inhabitants 
is  now  calculated  at  3,500,000,  an  increase  of  2,500,- 
000  in  two  hundred  and  seventy  years.  This  very 
slow  increase  in  population  in  a  country  possessing 
an  equable  and  healthful  climate  may  be  attributed 
to  several  causes. 

During  the  period  of  the  conquest  the  ranks  of 
the  indigenous  races  were  greatly  decimated  by 
war.  Later,  the  utter  disregard  for  hygienic  condi- 
tions, the  proverbial  uncleanliness  of  the  common 
])eople  and  the  unsanitary  manner  in  which  the  ma- 
jority of  them  live,  have  increased  the  death  rate 
to  abnormal  proportions.  This  is  especially  true 
among  the  children,  many  of  whom  die  from  inat- 
tention, cold  or  lack  of  proper  food.  Tuberculosis 
is  a  common  malady,  and  annually  claims  thousands 
of  victims.  The  prevalence  of  this  disease  is  also 
due  largely  to  the  manner  of  living.  In  the  homes 
of  the  majority  of  the  poor  people  there  are  no 
floors,  exce))t  the  ground  upon  which  the  houses  are 
built.  In  the  winter,  or  rainy  seasons,  the  cold  and 
dampness  of  the  dirt  floors  cause  pneumonia,  and 
colds  that  jjrove  fatal  to  delicate  children  and  adults 
of  weak  constitution,  or  those  suffering  from  hered- 
itary pulmonary  diseases.  The  number  of  births 
in  Chile  in  recent  years  has  been  little  in  excess  of 
the  number  of  deaths. 

As   a  means   of   increasing  the  population,   and 


POPULATION  AND  COLONIZATION     233 

hoping  thereby  to  promote  the  development  of  natu- 
ral resources  and  industrial  interests  of  the  coun- 
try, the  government  of  Chile  adopted  a  colonization 
law  for  the  purpose  of  inducing  emigrants  from 
Europe  to  settle  in  the  agricultural  and  timber  re- 
gions of  the  south.  The  law  contains  some  liberal 
provisions,  and  attractive  features,  including  free 
transportation  for  colonists  from  European  ports  to 
their  destination,  one  hundred  and  sixty  acres  of 
land  for  the  head  of  each  family,  and  a  government 
subsidy  of  five  hundred  pesos,  with  which  to  buy 
farm  implements,  build  a  house,  etc.  To  promote 
this  scheme  of  colonization,  the  Chilean  government 
maintains  agencies  in  Europe,  through  which  the 
advantages  to  be  gained,  and  the  attractive  features 
of  colonial  life  in  the  Republic  are  liberally  adver- 
tised. Through  this  plan  a  number  of  important 
foreign  colonies,  especially  German  communities, 
have  been  established  throughout  southern  Chile. 
Valdivia,  which  has  grown  into  an  important  manu- 
facturing city,  as  well  as  the  highly  developed  and 
cultivated  country  surrounding  it,  are  settled  al- 
most exclusively  by  Germans.  In  more  recent 
years  the  Italians  have  established  large  communi- 
ties in  the  southern  provinces,  but  they  have  been 
less  successful  than  the  Germans,  and  much  dissat- 
isfaction is  the  result.  Among  the  early  settlers  in 
Chile,  under  the  colonization  law,  were  communities 
of  Scotch,  the  majority  of  whom  were  disappointed 
with  the  conditions  and  with  what  they  claim  was  a 
lack  of  protection  of  their  personal  interests,  and 
their  property  rights. 

A  book  published  by  an  anonymous  writer,  enti- 
tled ''La  Eaza  Chilena"  (The  Chilean  Race),  and 


234:  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

sig-necl  ''Chileno,"  bearing  date  1905,  is  devoted  to 
a  discussion  of  the  race  question,  population  and 
colonization.  The  writer  criticises  severely  the 
colonization  plan,  and  the  evils  that  have  crept  into 
the  system,  citing  many  instances  of  dissatisfaction 
among  colonists,  and  cases  of  corruption  and  job- 
bery on  the  part  of  immigration  agents,  in  support 
of  his  demands  for  reforms  in  the  law,  and  a  change 
in  the  plan  for  encouraging  colonists  to  settle  in  the 
country. 


VILLAGES  AND  CITIES 

ALL  the  villages  in  Chile  are  similar  in  appear- 
ance and  general  aspect.  There  is  little  vari- 
ety and  few  attractive  features  to  distinguish  any 
of  them,  or  one  from  another.  The  one  story 
houses  are  ahnost  invariably  built  of  adobe,  and 
roofed  with  tile  or  thatch.  The  architecture,  if  the 
style  of  the  village  buildings  can  be  dignified  with 
the  term,  is  Spanish.  The  houses  front  directly 
upon  and  are  flush  with  the  sidewalk,  most  of  them 
being  built  round  a  patio. 

There  is  an  unattractive  sameness  about  Chilean 
villages,  even  to  the  disagreeable  smells.  There  is 
usually  one  long,  straight  street  upon  which  are  lo- 
cated the  shops  and  better  class  of  dwellings.  This 
main  thoroughfare  is  backed  by  a  few  other 
streets,  flanked  with  low,  rambling  huts,  the  habita- 
tions of  the  poorer  classes.  In  the  center  of  the 
town  is  the  plaza,  the  chief  feature  of  every  Span- 
ish-American municipality,  large  or  small, — the 
common  meeting  place  of  the  village  people  and 
playground  for  the  children.  Ornamented  with 
trees  and  flowers,  it  forms  a  pleasing  contrast  to  the 
dull  gray  of  dusty  streets  and  adobe  walls.  In  the 
more  pretentious  of  the  municipalities,  the  plaza  is 
frequently  enlivened  in  the  evenings  with  music  by 
a  band,  which  never  fails  to  attract  a  crowd.  On 
such  occasions  the  plaza  presents  a  scene  of  lively 
interest  and  animation.     There  the  people  congre- 

235 


236  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

gate  to  visit,  gossip  and  enjoy  the  music.  Black- 
eyed  senoritas  and  stont  matrons,  with  faces 
framed  in  mantillas,  join  in  the  promenade,  passing 
and  repassing  the  caballeros  with  whom  they  ex- 
change knowing  looks  and  significant  glances,  the 
method  employed  in  love-making  and  conducting 
flirtations  in  Chile.  Upon  the  green  sward,  beneath 
the  friendly  trees,  happy  children  engage  in  juvenile 
sports  and  youthful  pleasures.  It  is  in  these  public 
meeting  places  that  the  village  people  are  seen  at 
their  best;  there  they  abandon  themselves  to  the 
simple  pleasures  and  enjoyments  to  which  their  en- 
vironments limit  them. 

A  curious  feature  of  every  Chilean  village  is  the 
varied  and  violent  colors  used  in  painting  the 
houses.  Shades  of  blue,  red,  yellow,  pink  and  green 
frequently  appear  in  strange  contrast  in  the  same 
row  of  buildings.  Intermingling  with  these  pe- 
culiarly contrasting  hues  are  red  tile  roofs,  the 
lighter  shades  of  thatch,  and  the  gray  of  uudeco- 
rated  adobe  walls,  relieved  by  occasional  stretches 
of  whitewashed  houses  and  garden  enclosures. 

The  little  ''despachos,"  with  their  inartistically 
decorated  windows  and  curious  assortment  of  bot- 
tles of  ''cliicha,"  wine,  ''aguardiente,"  dry  goods, 
provisions,  firewood  and  charcoal,  are  a  feature  of 
every  town  in  the  country.  In  the  front  of  these 
shops  where  articles  of  various  kinds  are  dispensed, 
is  a  sort  of  hitch-rack  which  may  be  used  as  a  place 
for  customers  to  leave  their  horses  when  on  busi- 
ness, or  as  a  means  of  engaging  in  the  common 
sport  of  the  country,  ''topiadura."  It  is  in  the  vil- 
lage drinking  places  that  the  country  people  meet 
to  exchange  news  and  gossip  of  the  neighborhood, 


VILLAGES  AND  CITIES  237 

and  to  indulge  in  a  social  cup.  On  feast  days  and 
Sundays  crowds  congregate  in  these  places  where 
drinking  is  indulged  in  to  excess.  There  are  few 
places  of  amusement,  and  perhaps  no  place  where 
the  opportunities  for  entertainment  of  an  intellec- 
tual or  elevating  character  are  more  limited  and  re- 
stricted than  in  a  Chilean  village.  The  despachos 
with  their  gambling,  drinking  and  accompanying 
vices,  afford  the  only  relief  from  the  monotonous 
home  life  of  the  poor  people,  which  has  little  in  it  to 
encourage  mental  or  moral  improvement. 

The  population  of  the  villages  varies  from  three 
to  five  thousand  in  the  departmental  centers,  and 
from  one  to  two  thousand  each  in  the  others.  They 
liave  no  industries  except  a  few  shoe  shops,  black- 
smith and  carpenter  shops.  Some  of  the  general 
stores  have  well  assorted  stocks,  and  in  some  of  the 
small  towns  there  is  a  drug  store  with  a  billiard 
room  and  cafe.  These  together  with  the  drinking 
places  fill  the  commercial  list.  The  business  of  the 
villages  depends  entirely  upon  the  people  living  in 
the  adjacent  farming  country.  When  in  the  towns 
they  spend  their  time  in  eating,  drinking,  talking 
politics,  singing,  dancing  and  playing  cards. 

The  crops  of  the  adjoining  farms  do  not  enter 
into  the  business  of  the  towns  and  villages,  but  are 
shipped  to  the  nearest  mill,  railway  center  or  sea- 
port. In  all  the  towns  there  is  wealth,  not  exten- 
sive, but  considerable,  when  the  necessities  and 
modes  of  life  are  taken  into  account.  In  Chile,  as 
in  other  countries,  there  is  a  predisposition  on  the 
part  of  the  country  people  to  congregate  in  the 
towns  and  villages,  be  they  great  or  small;  in  close 
proximity  to  any  of  the  municipalities,  any  day  in 


238  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

the  week,  one  will  meet  all  classes  and  conditions 
of  rural  residents  on  horseback,  in  ox  carts  and  on 
foot,  wending  their  way  to  town.  It  is  another  evi- 
dence of  the  universal  desire  of  mankind  to  seek 
companionship  and  association  with  his  fellow  man, 
even  though  the  contact  furnishes  no  novelty  or  new 
sensation. 

Every  village  has  a  Catliolic  church,  and  the  fe- 
male portion  of  the  population  finds  relief  in  the 
"iglesia,"  from  the  monotony  of  domestic  life. 
They  attend  every  service,  and  on  Sundays  and 
feast  days  the  scene  about  the  village  church  sug- 
gests a  convent,  as  the  women  all  wear  mantillas 
draped  over  their  heads,  giving  them  the  general  ap- 
pearance of  nuns. 

SANTIAGO. 

There  are  few  municipalities  of  sufficient  size  and 
commercial  importance  to  entitle  them  to  be  classi- 
fied as  cities.  Santiago,  the  capital,  is  a  beautiful 
city  of  over  300,000  inhabitants,  charmingly  situ- 
ated in  the  verdant  valley  of  the  Mapocho,  and  sur- 
rounded by  rugged,  snow-crowned  mountains.  Few 
cities  possess  so  many  natural  advantages  in  situ- 
ation and  environments.  All  around  loom  giant 
peaks  of  the  Andes,  their  white  crests  among  the 
clouds.  In  the  smiling  valley,  clothed  in  the  green 
of  perennial  summer,  is  Santiago.  Long,  quiet 
streets,  badly  paved,  are  lined  with  handsome 
houses,  French  and  Spanish  in  architectural  design; 
many  of  them  palatial  in  proportions.  The  lack  of 
industrial  life  and  commercial  activity,  and  the 
peaceful  repose  of  this  daughter  of  Latin  America, 
give  to  the  capital  of  Chile  more  the  appearance  of 


VILLAGES  AND  CITIES  239 

an  indolent  Oriental  city  than  the  metropolis  of  an 
ambitions  young"  Kepublic. 

Situated  in  the  center  of  a  great  natural  amphi- 
theater, in  a  beautiful  fertile  plain,  through  which 
flow  several  streams,  supplied  with  crystal  waters 
from  melting*  snow  in  the  higher  ranges  of  the  Cor- 
dilleras, Santiago,  viewed  from  any  of  the  many 
points  of  advantage,  presents  an  attractive,  pictur- 
esque and  prepossessing  appearance.  In  the  cen- 
ter of  the  city,  rising  abruptly  from  the  level  plain 
upon  which  it  rests,  is  ''El  Cerro  Santa  Lucia,"  a 
precipitous,  rocky  hill,  four  hundred  feet  high,  and 
covering  at  its  base  an  area  of  eight  acres.  This 
wonderful  natural  formation,  often  described  as  a 
freak  of  nature,  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of 
its  kind  in  the  world.  The  entrance  to  the  "cerro" 
is  through  a  gateway  of  artistic  design,  with  ap- 
proaches of  fine  stone  columns  and  buttresses.  The 
summit  is  reached  by  winding  carriage  roads  of 
easy  grade,  which  are  flanked  with  stone  walls, 
towers  and  battlements.  There  are  also  shaded 
walks,  lined  with  many  hued  flowers,  by  which  the 
hill  may  be  ascended.  From  the  summit  one  looks 
down  upon  tile  roofs,  flower  bedecked  patios,  adobe 
walls  green  with  moss  and  overrun  with  rose-vines, 
streets  and  avenues  fringed  with  poplars  and  ala- 
mos. The  Alameda,  one  of  the  finest  avenues  in  the 
world,  with  its  wide  roadways,  fine  old  trees  and 
shaded  promenades,  starting  at  the  foot  of  the 
Santa  Lucia,  extends  for  a  distance  of  three  miles, 
cleaving  the  city  in  halves,  marking  the  center  and 
focus  of  traffic  in  the  metropolis.  The  Cathedral 
with  its  double  towers  and  central  dome,  fronting 
upon  the  Plaza  de  Armas,  in  the  heart  of  the  city  is 


240  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

a  good  viewpoint  from  which  to  trace  and  locate 
other  objects  of  interest.  In  the  near  distance  are 
the  parks  and  the  ''Qninta  Normal,"  the  govern- 
ment agricultural  and  horticultural  propagating 
station,  all  robed  in  the  gorgeous  green  of  semi- 
tropical  verdure  and  adorned  with  a  variety  of 
beautiful  flowers  that  grow  luxuriantly  and  bloom 
most  generously  in  the  soft,  sweet  air  and  golden 
sunshine  of  temperate  Chile.  This  lovely  picture, 
this  charming  ensemble  of  city  and  plain,  hill  and 
river,  parks  and  gardens,  this  municipal  mosaic 
with  emerald  green  settings,  crowned  with  a  dome 
of  turquoise  blue,  is  framed  in  a  wall  of  wonderful 
mountains  composing  a  part  of  the  Andean  range. 

In  detail  Santiago  is  not  unlike  other  cities,  re- 
semliling  in  many  features  some  European  munici- 
palities. Being  the  capital  it  has  attracted  to  and 
includes  in  its  population  the  rich  landowners,  the 
aristocratic  classes,  political  elements,  literary  and 
cultured  people  and  the  exclusive  society  of  tho 
country.  The  homes  of  these  well-to-do,  traveled 
and  cultured  ])eople  are  equal  in  appearance,  ap- 
pointment, furnishing,  decoration  and  equipment  to 
those  occupied  by  similar  classes  in  older  countries. 
The  social  life  of  the  rich  and  seclusive  classes  in 
Santiago  is  composed  of  a  ]ileasure  loving  people, 
with  an  inherent  love  of  dis]ilay.  They  are  musical 
by  nature,  with  a  keen  ap]ireciation  of,  and  an  apt- 
ness for  acquiring  quickly  a  little  knowledge  of 
music,  and  other  accomplishments,  conveying  the 
impression  that  they  are  clever,  if  not  brilliant. 
They  lack,  however,  the  industry  and  application 
that  lead  to  thoroughness,  and  few  of  them  develop 
great    talent    for    any    art    or    profession.     Their 


VILLAGES  AND  CITIES  241 

knowledge  is  more  general  than  genuine,  more  su- 
perficial than  special. 

The  life  of  the  poor  people  in  Santiago,  the  man- 
ner in.  which  they  live,  their  customs  and  habits, 
the  misery  and  vice,  the  depravity,  the  disregard  for 
law,  and  the  low  level  of  intelligence  that  prevails, 
form  a  sharp  contrast  to  the  picture  presented  in 
the  homes  of  the  rich. 

VALPARAISO. 

Valparaiso,  the  principal  commercial  port  in  Chile, 
and  the  second  city  in  population  in  the  Republic, 
is  picturesquely  situated  upon  a  poorly  protected 
harbor  on  the  Pacific.  It  is  crescent  in  shape,  de- 
scribing a  semi-circle  around  the  bay.  The  busi- 
ness section  occupies  a  margin  of  low  lying  ground 
along  the  water  front,  the  residence  portions  ex- 
tending back  over  a  series  of  high,  rugged  hills. 
Viewed  from  the  harbor  it  presents  an  attractive 
appearance.  Along  the  ^'malecon"  are  the  busi- 
ness houses,  uniform  in  height,  and  presenting  a 
straight  stiff  sky  line,  back  of  and  beyond  which  rise 
rugged,  terraced  hills.  Adobe  houses,  painted  in 
various  colors,  red  tile  roofs,  and  patios  green  with 
verdure  and  brilliant  with  the  bloom  of  flowers,  are 
some  of  the  features  of  the  scene  presented  in  a 
view  of  the  hills  forming  the  residence  districts  of 
Valparaiso.  Conspicuous  objects  in  the  view  are 
the  church  of  El  Espiritu  Santo,  a  large,  inartistic 
building  topped  with  a  huge,  single,  square  tower, 
and  situated  in  the  center  of  the  city,  and  the  '*Es- 
cuela  Naval"  (naval  school),  a  fine  architectural 
creation  crowning  one  of  the  numerous  hills  that 
surround  the  bay. 


242  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

Valparaiso  is  as  cosmopolitan  in  architocture  as 
it  is  in  population.  It  possesses  no  architectural 
features  that  can  be  considered  national  in  charac- 
ter ;  it  has  few  public  buildings  worthy  of  the  name, 
no  system  of  parks  or  boulevards, — nothing  to  dis- 
tinguish it,  except  a  consistent  mismanagement  of 
municipal  affairs.  Being  a  great  seaport,  into 
which  sail  annually  thousands  of  ships,  represent- 
ing nearly  all  the  nations  of  earth,  it  has  caught  in 
the  net  of  travel  a  cosmopolitan  conglomeration,  and 
includes  in  its  population  all  kinds  and  conditions 
of  people. 

It  is  more  European  than  Spanish  in  appearance, 
and  the  languages  spoken  are  as  varied  and  numer- 
ous as  the  nationalities  of  which  its  population  is 
composed.  The  majority  of  the  business  is  done  by 
foreigners,  the  British,  Germans,  Americans,  French 
and  Italians  taking  the  wholesale,  importing  and 
exporting  trade,  in  the  order  named,  while  the  small 
retail  business  is  largely  in  the  hands  of  Italians 
and  Spaniards. 

Tliere  are  few  places  of  amusement,  especially  for 
the  poor  people,  and  desirable,  or  intellectual  public 
entertainments  are  infrequent.  The  municipal  the- 
ater is  a  fine  building  with  a  capacity  sufficient  to 
accommodate  several  thousand  people,  but  with  the 
exception  of  two  weeks  of  Italian  opera  during  the 
winter  it  is  little  used. 

The  municipal  government  has  done  nothing  in 
recent  years  to  imi)rove  or  beautify  the  city.  Tliere 
is  practically^  no  drainage,  except  for  streets  re- 
ceiving the  water  from  ravines  coming  down  from 
the  hills,  and  they  are  usually  in  a  state  of  disorder 
that  renders  them  useless.     The  streets  are  miser- 


VILLAGES  AND  CITIES  243 

ably  paved  and  proverbially  filthy,  and  during  the 
rainj^  season  they  are  filled  with  sludge  washed 
down  from  the  hills. 

Notwithstanding  the  great  shipping  interests 
represented,  and  the  fact  that  Valparaiso  is  the 
chief  commercial  port  in  the  country,  the  bay  upon 
which  it  is  built  affords  one  of  the  most  insecure 
harbors  on  the  west  coast  of  South  America. 
There  is  absolutely  no  protection  to  ships  and  ship- 
ping interests  against  the  strong  winds  and  severe 
storms  that  prevail  during  the  months  of  June, 
July  and  August.  There  is  no  breakwater  in  the 
bay,  which  faces  to  the  north,  the  direction  from 
which  the  storms  and  heavy  seas  come  during  the 
winter,  and  as  a  result  great  damage  is  done  to  ves- 
sels in  port,  and  to  cargo  along  the  water  front. 

\T:f5-A   DEL.   MAR. 

The  majority  of  foreigners  and  many  Chilenos  en- 
gaged in  business  in  Valparaiso  find  relief  from  the 
disagreeable  features  of  life  in  the  port  by  living  in 
Vina  del  Mar,  a  beautiful  residence  suburb  situated 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  bay,  six  miles  distant, 
and  connected  with  the  city  by  steam  and  electric 
railways. 

Vina  del  Mar,  which  includes  the  stations  of  Mira 
Mar  and  Chorrillos,  is  the  popular  pleasure  and  sea- 
side resort  of  Chile.  It  is  attractively  situated  in 
a  verdant  valley,  surrounded  by  rugged  hills,  has  a 
fine  bathing  beach,  a  number  of  large  hotels,  many 
beautiful  residences  and  cottages,  and  during  the 
summer  season,  December  to  March,  it  is  thronged 
with  visitors  from  Santiago  and  other  interior  cit- 
ies, who  go  annually  to  that  favorite  resort  for  the 


244  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

baths  and  the  social  pleasures  incident  to  a  season 
at  Viiia.  Among  the  attractive  features  of  the  re- 
sort are  a  fine  race  course,  where  are  held  two  race 
meetings  a  year,  polo,  cricket,  football,  tennis,  golf, 
etc. 

CONCEPCION. 

Concepcion,  the  third  city  in  size  and  commercial 
importance  in  the  Republic,  has  a  population  of 
60,000.  It  is  a  characteristic  Spanish-American 
municipality,  with  some  European  features.  Ori- 
ental and  indolent  in  appearance,  with  long 
stretches  of  unattractive  streets,  flanked  with 
houses  painted  in  many  colors. 

Situated  in  the  verdant  valley  of  the  Bio  Bio,  near 
its  confluence  with  the  bay  of  Arauco,  it  is  sur- 
rounded by  orchards  ladened  with  fruits,  and  gar- 
dens brilliant  with  the  bloom  of  beautiful  flowers. 
Well  tilled,  irrigated  haciendas,  with  stone  walls 
and  lines  of  graceful  alamos  defining  their  limits, 
cover  the  lovely  plain,  back  of  which  rise  tree- 
crowned  hills,  adding  a  picturesque  feature  to  the 
scene.  It  is  the  commercial  metropolis  of  a  large 
section  of  productive  country,  and  enjoys  a  business 
prosperity  and  trade  activity  surpassed  only  by 
Valparaiso.  The  ports  of  entry  for  Concepcion 
are  Talcahuano  and  Coronel,  a  few  miles  distant 
and  situated  on  the  bay  of  Arauco. 

MUNICIPAL   GOVERNMENT, 

Under  the  constitution  of  Chile,  municipalities 
constituted  a  part  of  the  general  government,  and 
until  recent  years  were  controlled  by  national  au- 


VILLAGES  AND  CITIES  245 

thority.  Article  127  of  the  Constitution,  1833, 
says : 

*'Tlie  governor  is  the  chief  of  all  the  municipali- 
ties in  his  department,  and  president  of  that  one  in 
which  his  capital  is  established.  The  sub-delegate 
is  president  of  the  municipality  in  his  subdelega- 
tion." 

The  Intendentes,  or  governors  of  provinces,  with 
jurisdiction  over  the  cities  and  towns  in  their  re- 
spective territories,  are  appointed  by  the  president, 
and  they  in  turn  appoint  the  sub-delegates.  All 
public  improvements  and  municipal  works  were 
formerly  authorized  by  the  government  and  paid 
for  out  of  the  general  fund.  The  purpose  of  the 
framers  of  the  constitution  was  apparently  to  keep 
the  municipalities  out  of  politics.  The  authority 
of  the  legislative  branches  of  the  municipal  govern- 
ment, whose  members  are  elected  for  three  years, 
was  limited  and  their  duties  perfunctory. 

The  politicians  of  Chile  were  not  satisfied,  how- 
ever, with  leaving  the  management  of  municipalities 
with  the  national  government.  City  offices  were  at- 
tractive political  plums,  and  the  control  of  public 
works  and  improvements  could  be  used  to  advan- 
tage in  influencing  election  results,  and  a  means  was 
found  for  placing  them  in  the  hands  of  officials 
elected  by  popular  vote. 

The  scheme  for  changing  the  plan  of  municipal 
government  originated  with  Senator  Irrazaval,  who 
having  traveled  in  Switzerland,  thought  to  engraft 
the  system  employed  there  upon  the  laws  of  Chile. 
After  his  return  from  Europe  he  secured  the  pas- 
sage of  a  measure  by  CongTess  which  provided  for 
the  election  of  municipal  officers  by  accumulative 


246  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

vote.  Under  this  system  one  man  can  cast  as  many 
ballots  for  a  single  candidate  as  there  are  names  on 
the  ticket.  If  there  are  ten  offices  to  fill,  the  voter 
may  cast  ten  ballots  for  one  candidate  instead  of 
voting  once  for  each  of  the  ten  different  aspirants 
to  office.  This  gave  politicians  an  opportunity  to 
deal  with  the  lower  classes,  to  encourage  unscrupu- 
lous men  to  engage  in  questionable  political  prac- 
tices, and  the  working  classes  now  dominate 
municipal  politics.  Having  become  a  political  fac- 
tor in  the  cities  and  towns,  they  aspired  to  higher 
positions,  and  in  recent  years  a  number  of  repre- 
sentatives of  organized  labor  have  been  elected  to 
Congress.  There  is  an  encouraging  sign,  however, 
in  the  fact  that  a  better  class  of  people  is  beginning 
to  manifest  greater  interest  in  political  affairs. 
There  is  also  a  strong  public  sentiment  in  favor  of 
al)olishing  the  law  providing  for  the  accumulative 
vote  in  municipalities. 

As  a  result  of  the  present  political  system  the 
management  of  municipalities  in  Chile  is  proverbi- 
ally bad.  As  an  illustration  of  this  fact,  there  could 
be  no  better  example  offered  than  Valparaiso.  The 
business  portion  occupying  a  narrow  strip  of  land 
along  the  water  front,  the  residence  districts  ex- 
tending over  and  occupying  the  hills  that  rise  ab- 
ruptly all  around,  Valparaiso  affords  natural  facili- 
ties for  drainage  which  should  render  it  an  easy 
matter  to  establish  and  maintain  an  excellent  sewer- 
age system.  Yet  it  is  proverl)ially  and  notoriously 
filthy,  and  it  is  only  the  influence  of  a  salubrious 
and  healthful  climate  that  prevents  the  population 
from  being  annually  decimated  by  contagion  and 
epidemics. 


VILLAGES  AND  CITIES  247 

A  most  tragic  example  of  municipal  mismanage- 
ment was  witnessed  in  Valparaiso  in  1905,  when  the 
smallpox  plague  visited  tlie  port.  Finding  there  in 
the  filth  of  the  streets,  in  the  general  lack  of  sanitary 
observance,  in  the  crowded,  foul,  disease-breeding 
condition  of  the  '^conventillos"  (apartment 
houses)  and  in  homes  of  the  poor,  a  prolific  atmos- 
phere for  contagion,  the  fjlague  spread  so  rapidly 
that  the  number  of  cases  reached  into  the  thousands, 
and  the  death  rate  was  two  hundred  daity.  When 
the  municipal  authorities  found  the  city  in  the 
throes  of  a  disastrous  epidemic,  and  the  public  was 
demanding  ways  and  means  for  combating  and 
checking  the  plague,  and  caring  for  those  stricken 
with  the  malady,  the  municipal  government  joroved 
utterly  impotent,  absolutely  incompetent  to  handle 
the  situation.  The  result  was  a  national  tragedy  in 
which  thousands  of  lives  were  sacrificed.  The  mu- 
nicipal treasury  which  from  various  sources  is  an- 
nually augmented  by  two  millions  of  pesos,  was 
found  empty,  and  to  make  a  showing  at  combating 
the  epidemic  the  national  government  was  requested 
to  provide  means  for  establishing  a  vaccina tio7i 
service,  hospitals,  ambulance  and  medical  corps. 
Speaking  of  the  first  appropriation  by.  the  central 
government  for  this  purpose,  amounting  to  ninety- 
two  thousand  pesos.  La  Union,  one  of  the  leading 
dailies  of  Valparaiso,  under  date  of  July  12,  1905, 
discussed  the  question  in  an  article  from  which  the 
following  is  an  abstract  and  translation: 

"Ninety-two  thousand  pesos  in  sand,  mud  and-itiTire. 
This  fact  is  in  reality  worthy  of  mention  in  history,  be- 
cause one  who  reads  in  foreign  lands  of  the  project  of  law 
passed  by  the  President  to  Congress,  to  solicit  the  above 


248  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 

sum  to  clean  drains  and  carry  away  sand,  mud  and  mire 
from  the  streets  of  the  first  port  of  Chile,  cannot  but  feel 
the  horror  and  dread  for  the  country  whose  principal  port 
on  the  Pacific  lies  in  a  pestilential  pool.  Years  go  by,  cruel 
and  eompassionless  plagues  and  calamities  afflict  us,  the 
government  money  is  squandered  upon  frivolous  matters 
Avhich  are  far  from  curing  the  evils,  and  Valparaiso  lies 
in  her  muddy  bed,  inhaling  the  breath  of  death  evaporated 
from  the  infested  and  unhealthy  drains  and  streets." 

The  following  is  an  extract  from  and  translation 
of  an  editorial  that  appeared  in  El  Mercurio  of  Val- 
paraiso, Jul}"  8,  1905: 

"The  foreign  press  is  beginning  to  occupy  itself  with 
the  situation  of  Valparaiso,  and  take  note  of  the  sad  state 
in  which  the  first  port  of  the  Republic  finds  itself,  and  in 
which  reigns  a  deplorable  and  filthy  abandon  that  helps  the 
devastating  work  of  smallpox  that  is  decimating  its  popula- 
tion. Valparaiso  with  its  infested  streets,  sidewalks  de- 
stroyed, pavements  removed  and  full  of  holes,  with  the 
enormous  piles  of  dirt  and  mud  accumulated  in  residence 
districts ;  Valparaiso,  where  there  is  no  miuiicipal  street 
sweeping  nor  watering,  or  even  carrying  away  of  dirt ;  with 
infested  public  buildings  (like  the  prisons),  without  or- 
ganization to  resist  an  epidemic,  must  create  the  impression 
in  the  minds  of  people  in  foreign  countries,  who  read  of 
its  dei)lorable  condition,  that  it  is  not  the  city  of  200,000 
inhabitants,  described  in  geogra{)hy  as  possessing  an  ad- 
vanced and  cultivated  i)opulation  and  situated  in  an  agree- 
able climate ;  as  not  being  the  port  of  so  much  commercial 
and  maritime  movement,  which,  as  a  bitter  irony  has  some- 
times been  called  the  'Jewel  of  the  Pacific'  " 


Translation  from  La  Union,  Valparaiso 


VILLAGES  AND  CITIES  249 

"Valiiaraiso  is  again  unfortunately  under  the  weight  and 
opprobrium  of  the  great  calamity  of  every  winter.  Mud 
covers  all  the  streets,  traffic  is  interrupted,  social  life  is  sus- 
pended, and  one  touches  on  every  side  mud  and  filth.  To 
this  is  added  the  calamity  of  administrative  corruption, 
and  life  is  little  more  than  a  fight  of  a  few  civilized  ele- 
ments against  barbarism,  which  destroys  everything,  mor- 
ally and  maternally." 

(The  foregoing  refers  to  Valparaiso  before  the 
earthquake  in  August,  1906,  which  destroyed  the 
greater  part  of  the  business  portion  of  the  city, 
which  has  since  been  practically  rebuilt,  and  the 
sanitary  conditions   somewhat  improved.) 

These  and  similar  arraignments  by  the  press  of 
Chile  of  the  management  of  municipalities,  give  a 
better  idea  of  the  existing  conditions  than  any  criti- 
cism that  might  be  offered  by  a  foreigner. 


THE  NATIONAL  HYMN 

THE  first  National  Hymn  of  Chile  was  written 
in  1819,  by  Bernardo  Vera  y  Pintado.  It  was 
well  received  by  the  public  from  the  first,  and  en- 
thusiastically so  when  sung  on  September  ISth,  the 
anniversary  of  Republican  Independence. 

The  hymn  was  first  sung  to  the  music  of  the  Ar- 
gentine National  Anthem,  but  in  1820  Manuel  Ro- 
bles,  a  Chilean  composer  wrote  appropriate  music 
for  the  patriotic  words.  His  composition  was  used 
until  1828,  when  Ramon  Carnicer  composed  the 
music  since  used. 

The  verses  as  first  written  expressed  the  bitter 
feelings  of  the  Chileans  towards  the  Spaniards,  but 
later  when  public  sentiment  became  less  hostile,  the 
wording  of  the  hymn  was  modified.  In  1847  it  was 
again  rewritten.  The  following  is  a  copy  in  Span- 
ish, and  a  translation: 

THE  NATIONAL  HYMN 

(La   Cancion  Naeional) 

DuLCE  Patria,  Recibe  los  Votos 
Con  que  Chile  en  tus  Aras  Juro  ; 
Que  o  la  Tumba  Sera  de  los  Libres, 
0  el  Asilo  Contra  la  Opresion. 

1 

Ha  eesado  la  lucha  sangrienta. 

Ya  es  hennano  el  que  ayer  invasor; 

De  tres  siglos  lavamos  la  afrenta, 

Combatiendo  en  el  campo  de  honor. 

250 


NATIONAL  HYMN  251 

El  que  aver  dob]e.G;abase  eselavo 
Libre  al  fin  y  triuufaute  se  ve : 
Libertad  es  la  herencia  del  bravo, 
La  victoria  se  hurailla  a  sus  pies. 


Alza  Chile,  sin  mancha  la  frente, 
Conquistaste  tu  nombre  en  la  lid : 
Siempre  noble,  constante  y  valiente 
Te  encontraron  los  hijos  del  Cid ! 
Que  tus  libres,  tranquilos  coronen 
A  las  artes,  la  industria  y  la  paz, 
Y  de  trinnfo  cantares  entonen. 
Que  amedrenten  al  despota  audaz. 


Vuestros  nombres  valientes  soldados 
Que  habeis  sido  de  Chile  el  sosten. 
Nuestros  pechos  los  llevan  grabados, 
Los  sabran  nuestros  hijos  tambien: 
Sean  ellos  el  grito  de  muerte 
Que  lancemos,  marchando  a  lidiar ; 
Y  sonando  en  la  boca  del  fuerte, 
Ilagan  siempre  al  tirano  temblar. 


Si  pretende  el  canon  estranjero 
Nuestros  pueblos  osado  invadir, 
Desnudemos  al  punto  el  acera 

Y  sepamos  veneer  6  morir. 

Con  su  sangre  el  altivo  araucano 
Nos  lego  por  herencia  el  valor. 

Y  no  tiembla  la  espada  en  la  mano 
Defendiendo  de  Chile  el  honor. 


252  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 


5 


Puro,  Chile,  es  tii  cielo  azulado, 
Puras  brisas  te  cruzan  tambien, 

Y  til  campo  de  fiores  soinbrado 
Es  la  oopia  feliz  del  Eden. 
]\[ajestiiosa  es  la  blanca  montana 
Que  te  dio  por  baluarte  el  Sefior, 

Y  ese  mar  que  tranquilo  te  banas 
Te  promete  futuro  esplendor. 

6 

Esas  galas  oh  Patria!  esas  flores, 
Que  tapizan  tii  suelo  feraz 
No  las  pisen  jamas  invasores, 
Cou  su  sombra  las  cubra  la  paz. 
Niiestros  peehos  seran  tu  baluarte 
Con  tu  nombre  sabremos  veneer, 
0  tu  noble  y  glorioso  estandarte 
Nos  vera  eombatieudo  eaer. 


TRANSLATION 

(Chorus) 

Sweet  Country,  Receive  the  Vows 
To  WHICH  Thou  Didst  on  Thy  Altar  IMake  Oath, 
That  Chile  Shall  Be  the  Tomb  op  the  Free, 
Or  an  Asylum  Against  Oppression. 


The  bloody  fight  has  ceased  and 
Yesterday's  invader  is  now  a  brother. 
Of  three  centuries  we  wash  the  affront, 
Fighting  on  the  field  of  honor. 


NATIONAL  HYMN  253 

He  that  was  yesterday  called  slave 
Is  seen  at  last  free  and  triumphant, — 
Liberty  is  the  inheritance  of  the  brave, 
Victory  humbles  herself  at  his  feet. 


Lift,  O  Chile,  thy  stainless  brow, 
For  thou  didst  wan  thy  name  in  battle; 
The  sons  of  the  Cid  did  ever  find  thee 
Noble,  constant,  true  and  brave. 
Let  thy  children  tranquilly  crown 
Industry,  peace  and  the  arts. 
And  sing  hymns  of  victory 
To  terrify  the  audacious  despot. 


Your  names,  valiant  soldiers, 
AVho  have  been  Chile's  support, 
Shall  be  engraved  on  our  hearts 
And  on  those  of  our  children  as  well. 
Let  them  be  the  war  cry  of  death 
On  our  march  to  the  battle. 
And  out  of  the  mouth  of  the  strong, 
]\Iay  they  ever  make  the  tyrant  tremble. 


Should  the  foreigners'  cannon 

Dare  to  invade  our  lands. 

Let  us  draw  the  sword  at  once, 

And  know  how  to  conquer  or  die. 

With  the  blood  of  the  Araucanian 

"We  have  inherited  our  valor; 

The  sword  shall  not  tremble  in  the  hand 

That  defends  the  honor  of  Chile. 


254  PROGRESSIVE  CHILE 


Pure,  0  Chile,  is  thy  azure  sky, 

Purest  breezes  do  cross  thee  as  well, 

And  thy  flower-embroidered  fields 

Are  the  happy  copy  of  Eden. 

IMajestic  are  the  snow-covered  mountains, 

Given  by  God  for  thy  bulwark. 

And  the  ocean  that  washes  thy  shores 

Is  a  promise  of  thy  future  splendor. 

6 

Those  graces,  0  Chile,  those  flowers 
Which  carpet  thy  fruitful  soil, 
Let  them  never  be  trod  by  invaders. 
But  sheltered  by  the  shadow  of  peace. 
Our  hearts  shall  be  thy  walls, — 
With  thy  name  we  shall  know  how  to  win, 
Or  thy  noble  and  glorious  standard 
Shall  see  us  fall  fighting. 


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